SWINE  HUSBANDRY. 


A   Practical    Manual   for  the   Breeding,  Rear- 
ing and   Management  of   Swine, 


WITH 


SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  THE   PREVENTION   AND   TREATMENT  OF 
THEIR  DISEASES. 


By  F.  D.  COBURN. 


NEW,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION. 


ILLUSTRATED 


Hew  York. 

Orange  3udd  Company, 

1900. 


COPYRIGHT,  18OT, 
Uv  ORANGK  JU1>D  COMPAWY 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Introductory 9 

CHAPTER  II. 
Value  of  the  Hog  Product 14 

BREEDS  OF  SWINE,  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS  AND  WORTH. 

CHAPTER  III. 
The  Poland-Chinas 21 

CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Cheater  Whites 34 

CHAPTER  V. 
The  Berkehires 43 

CHAPTER  VI. 
TheSuffolke 54 

CHAPTER  VII. 
The  Essex 62 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Yorkshires. — Cheshires,  or  Jefferson  County  Swine,  of  New  York. 
— Lancashires.—  Victorias.— Neapolitans.—  Jersey  Reds.— Durocs.  69 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Relative  Merits  of  the  Suffolk,  Essex,  and  Berkshire.    By  E.  W. 
CottreU 80 

RAISING    AND  FATTENING  SWINE. 

CHAPTER  X. 
The  Boar— How  to  Choose  and  How  to  Keep  Him 89 

CHAPTER  XI. 
The  Sow  and  Her  Pigs 95 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Castrating  and  Spaying 105 

CHAPTER  XIII. 
Pasture  and  Summer  Food 108 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
Fattening 118 

CHAPTER  XV. 
Cooking  Food  for  Swine— Food  Cookers 137 


82902 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Hog  nouses  and  Pens  -- 

CHAPTER  XVH. 
Slaughtering,  Curing,  and  Preserving  .. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Hog-Feeding  and  Pork  Making  .. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

The  Effects  of  Cold  Weather  on  Fattening  Swine.— Experiments  made 
at  the  Kansas  State  Agricultural  College  Farm,  by  E.  M.  Sbelton, 
Professor  of  Agriculture . . 

CHAPTER  XX. 
Feeding  for  Fat  and  Lean. . 

CHAPTER  XXI. 
The  Gradual  Disappearance  of  White  Swine  from  American  Farms.  .207 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Seme  fJeneral  Observations. -Rooting  and  its  Prevention. -Ear  Mu- 
tilation and  Ear  Marks.-8ows  Eating  their  Pigs. -Quarrelsome 
and  Fighting  Hogs.— C6nditlon  of  Sows  for  Breeding.— Is  it 
Profitable  to  Cure  Pork  ?— Reports  of  Remarkable  Growth.— Prize 
Animals  for  Breeding.— Feeding  Cooked  Wheat. -Hogging-off 
Corn  Fields.— Relation  between  the  Prices  of  Corn  and  Pork.- 
Records  and  Recording.— Standards  of  Excellence  and  Scale  of 
Polnts.-Coet  of  Pig  and  Pork.-Stock  Yards  Receipts.  .. 
DISEASES  OF  SWINE.  PRACTICAL  INFORMATION  AS  TO  THEIR 
CAUSES,  SYMPTOMS,  PREVENTION,  AND  CURE. 

CHAPTER  XXIII. 

Diseases  of  Swine  and  Their  Treatroent.-Introductory.-Anthrax 
Diseases  or  "Hog  Cholera,". 

CHAPTER  XXIV. 
The  So-called  ••  Hog  Cholera."    By  Doct.  H.  J.  Dctmars. . 

CHAPTER  XXV. 
The  So-called  "Hog  Cholera,".. 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

Various  Diseases  Common  to  Swine.-Worms.-Trichina  spiralis.- 
Kidney  Worms.— Measles.-  Mange. -Lice. -Common  Cough.- 
Pneumonia.-Quinsy  or  Strangles. -Nasal  Catarrh.- In flaim 
tion  of  the  Brain,  Epilepsy  or  "  Blind  Staggers.  "-Apoplexy. - 
Paroplegia. -Diarrhrca  or    Scours. -Constipation. -Evers 
Rectum.— Rheumatism.— Loss  of  Tails... 


PREFACE   TO  THE  THIRD  REVISED  AND 
ENLARGED   EDITION. 


ONCE  more  has  come  from  its  publishers  a  reminder 
that  the  most  recent  edition  of  Swine  Husbandry  has  all 
been  sold,  and  the  request  that  some  intended  revision 
shall  be  speedily  prepared,  with  a  view  to  early  supply- 
ing the  demand  which  has  been  continuous  since  the 
work  was  first  announced. 

With  an  aim  to  having  it  as  nearly  as  may  be  abreast 
of  the  times,  various  changes  have  been  introduced,  and 
additions  made  for  this  issue  of  facts  which  were  only 
recently  available.  The  figures  in  the  introductory 
chapter  have  been  brought  down  to  the  latest  dates  possi- 
ble. The  chapter  (somewhat  amplified  in  this  edition) 
of  experiments  by  Prof.  E.  M.  Shelton,  at  the  Kansas 
State  Agricultural  College,  on  "The  Effects  of  Cold 
upon  Fattening  Swine,"  and  that  by  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry, 
of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  on  "Feeding  for 
Fat  and  Lean,"  will  be  found  not  only  especially  inter- 
esting and  instructive,  but  also  the  most  suggestive 
recent  additions  to  swine  literature.  For  their  arrange- 
ment and  careful  revision  especially  for  this  volume, 
grateful  acknowledgment  is  hereby  made.  To  Mr. 
Charles  B.  Murray,  editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Price 
Current,  Hon.  L.  N.  Bonham,  and  secretaries  of  the 
various  swine  breeders'  associations,  the  author  is  also 
indebted  for  very  valuable  data  furnished. 

F.  D.  COBURN. 

KANSAS  CITY,  KANSAS,  1897. 

(5) 


PREFACE    TO    FIRST    EDITION. 


In  preparing  this  work,  I  have  acted  upon  the  belief 
that  no  one  man,  or  any  half-dozen  men,  know  all  there 
is  worth  knowing  on  a  subject  so  extensive  and  important 
as  that  of  Swine  Husbandry  ;  still,  there  are  many  men 
who  know  something  concerning  some  branch  of  it,  which 
they  have  learned  by  long  experience,  careful  study,  and 
close  observation,  and  who  have  acquired  their  knowledge 
under  precisely  such  conditions  and  circumstances  as  to- 
day surround  many  other  men,  who  have  neither  experi- 
ence nor  sound  advice  to  guide  them. 

It  has  been  less  my  object  to  make  an  original  book, 
filled  with  fine  theories,  and  the  limited  experiences  of  one 
individual,  than  to  condense  in  one  small  volume,  from 
all  available  sources,  the  conclusions  and  ideas  of  the 
most  practical,  successful,  observant  men  who  have  fol- 
lowed the  business  in  our  own  time,  and  in  our  own  coun- 
try, leaving  the  reader  free  to  form  his  own  conclusions, 
and  pursue  such  methods  as  shall,  with  the  light  before 
him,  seem  most  rational  and  profitable. 

As  to  the  choice  of  breeds  of  swine,  I  have  my  prefer- 
(6) 


PREFACE  TO   FIRST   EDITION.  7 

ences,  which  will  bo  found  freely  expressed  elsewhere,  but 
I  can  fully  appreciate  the  fact,  that  a  breed  exactly  suited 
to  the  wants  of  farmers  in  one  locality,  might  not  meet 
the  needs  of  those  in  other  portions  of  the  country,  who 
make  pork  for  different  purposes,  and  under  widely  dif- 
ferent circumstances,  and  for  different  markets. 

So  long  as  mankind  differ  about  so  many  other  matters, 
it  is  idle  to  expect  them  to  agree  upon  any  one  breed  of 
swine,  or  upon  one  manner  of  breeding  and  feeding  as 
being  altogether  the  best. 

Kadi  breed  has  its  champions,  and  each,  in  proper 
hands,  under  favorable  circumstances,  with  congenial 
food  and  climate,  has  proven  itself  entirely  satisfactory  ; 
while  animals  of  the  same  breed,  but  with  different  treat- 
ment and  surroundings,  would  have  been  found  in  every 
wav  unsatisfactory,  and  discarded  for  what  their  owner 
considered  positive  knowledge  of  their  worthlessness. 

I  am  confident  that  each  of  the  leading  breeds  has  its 
place  and  its  merits,  and  for  this  reason  I  have  not  un- 
dertaken to  exalt  anyone  of  them  over  another.  One 
person,  by  a  lucky  purchase  of  animals  of  a  certain  breed, 
and  by  proper  management,  attains  unusual  success,  and 
from  that  time  is  satisfied  in  his  own  mind,  that  he  pos- 
sesses a  breed  incomparably  better  than  any  other;  at 
the  same  time,  some  other  person,  with  a  breed  of  entirely 
different  characteristics,  has  been  even  more  successful, 
and  knows,  at  least  to  his  own  satisfaction,  that  he  pos- 
sesses the  one  breed  worth  having,  and  cares  not  to  be 
told  that  some  other  may  also  be  valuable. 

If  this  book  shall  serve  to  encourage  the  keeping  of 
better  swine,  in  a  better,  more  rational,  and  consequently 


8  PREFACE  TO   FIRST  EDITION. 

more  profitable  way,  my  labors  will  not  have  been    in 
vain. 

To  the  many  correspondents,  breeders,  and  friends,  who 
proffered  assistance  and  encouragement,  and  to  the  nu- 
merous journals  I  have  quoted — which  I  have  aimed  to 
duly  credit — I  am  under  lasting  obligations,  and  any  suc- 
cess this  effort  attains  will  be  largely  due  to. them. 

From  the  Hon.  John  M.  Millikin  (present  State  TVM* 
urer  of  Ohio),  especially,  much  valuable  information  has 
been  obtained. 

F.   D.  COBURX. 
POMONA,  KANSAS,  April,  1877. 


SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

LNTBODUCTORY     TO    THE     REVISED     EDITION — SOME 
STATISTICS. 

The  United  States  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  in  his 
Annual  Report,  estimated  the  number  of  hogs  in  the 
United  States  in  1896  to  be,  including  pigs,  42,842,759, 
of  an  average  value  of  $4.35  each,  or  a  total  value  of 
$186,529,745;  the  highest  average  valuation  per  head 
being  in  Rhode  Island,  $9.80,  and  the  lowest,  in  Florida, 
$2.16.  Of  the  total  number,  there  were,  in  the  fourteen 
States  that  may  properly  be  designated  as  the  Mississippi 
valley,  viz.,  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Ne- 
braska, Missouri,  Kansas,  Arkansas  and  Louisiana, 
26,949,957  head,  or  nearly  63  per  cent.  The  average 
value  per  head  ranged  from  $6.27  in  Wisconsin,  to  $2.53 
in  Arkansas,  the  total  value  being  $119,156,111.  In  the 
same  report,  the  corn  crop  in  the  United  States  for  the 
year  1895  is  figured  at  2,151,138,580  bushels,  worth 
$544,985,534,  of  which  the  fourteen  Mississippi  Valley 
States  mentioned  above  produced  1,691,408,775  bushels, 
the  farm  valuation  of  which,  counted  at  22.2  cents  per 
bushel,  or  $375,369,569,  represented  78.62  of  the  total 
corn  crop,  and  69  per  cent  of  its  value  for  the  entire 
Union. 

It  is  no  doubt  safe  to  say  that  few  persons  have  any 
proper  conception  of  the  immensity  of  the  swine-produc- 
ing interest  in  the  United  States,  or  are  aware  that 
nearly  one-half  in  numbers  and  more  than  one-half  in 

9 


I ) 


SWIXE    lit  SBANDRY. 


value  of  all  the  swine  in  the  world,  are  reared  and  fat- 
tened in  this  country.  The  distribution  of  the  world's 
supply,  according  to  the  most  recent  available  returns, 
is  shown  in  the  table  below,  which  gives  the  number  in 
the  United  States  in  1896,  in  the  United  Kingdom  in 
1896,  British  North  American  Provinces  in  1894,  and  in 
other  countries  having  100,000  or  more  somewhat  earlier : 


United  States 42.W2.759 

Russia 9,242,997 

Germany 12,174,288 

Aiistro-Hungary 8,353,339 

France 6,860.!».vj 

Spain 4.:oj.iKHi 

United  Kingdom 2,87*,Kol 

Switzerland :-v:,.>i 

Italy l,ww,ooo 

H.  N.  A.  Provinces 1.7irj.;.<, 

Ron  in  an  la 920,124 


Portugal  720,000 

Belgium 046,375 

Australasia l.ir-'T.Tll 

Denmark 829,131 

Sweden 682,178 

Holland 643,900 

Argentine  Republic 350,000 

Greece 175,000 

Cape  Good  Hope 228,764 

Norway 120,737 

Total...  ...96,023,«25 


The  gradual  variation  in  the  number  of  swine  in  the 
United  States  during  the  twenty-five  years  prior  to  and 
including  1896,  is  well  shown  in  the  following  figures. 
These  are  the  estimates  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  of  the  number  in  January  of  each  year: 


1872 81,786,800 

1873 ... 

1874 

1875 2X.miJ.-JOM 

1876 25,726,800 

1877 28,077,100 

1878 32.2ii-J..piOO 

1879 34.7WJ.-JOO 

1880 34,034,100 


1881 86.227,603 

1882 44,122.200 

1883 43.270,08«i 

18X4 44,200.Kltt 

1885 46,142,657 

1886 46,«rj.043 

1887 44.612.83J 

1888 44,346.525 


1889 50,301,592 

1880 51,008,789 

1891 60,625.106 

1892 52,398,01') 

1893 46,0i»4,*07 

1894 46.2mi.4iw 

1895 44,165,716 

1898 42,842,759 


Mr.  Charles  B.  Murray,  editor  of  the  Cincinnati  Price 
Current,  who  is  the  most  prominent  authority  on  figures 
pertaining  to  the  subject,  estimates  the  number  of  hogs 
packed  in  the  United  States  in  the  twelve  months  ending 
March  1,  1893,  1894,  1895  and  1896,  as  shown  below  : 


1895-%. 

1804-95. 

1W.V.4. 

Iv.'J  :.;;. 

Packed  in  the  West  

15,010,000 

16.003,000 

11.005,000 

1  ••  .;:«>.<>,," 

Packed  at  Boston 

1  290  000 

1  748  000 

1,578080 

1  7M  I',!1' 

Other  New  England  packing. 
Packed  at  Buffalo  
Other  Eastern  parking  
Receipts,  N.  Y.,  Phila.,  Bait.. 

677,000 

•K'l.lMNI 

173,000 
2,867,000 

880.000 

l7.-i.oou 
178,000 
2,517,000 

585,600 

4<r_-.«MM, 
i3»;,ooo 

2.483.000 

049,000 
Ifi6,  

128,000 

•j.  :'.>•>.<•"" 

Total  

20,480,000 

21,619,000 

16.789,000 

18,196,000 

INTRODUCTORY. 


11 


These  figures  represent  only  the  organized  pork  pack- 
ing of  the  country,  done  in  cities ;  and  to  obtain  the  ag- 
gregate number  slaughtered,  there  should  be  added  those 
killed  by  farmers  for  home  consumption  and  limited 
neighborhood  sale,  in  weight  about  two-thirds  as  much 
more,  and  in  numbers  a  somewhat  larger  proportion. 

The  exports  of  live  hogs  from  the  United  States  to 
foreign  countries  are  reported  by  the  National  Bureau  of 
Statistics,  for  each  of  the  twenty-five  years  named  below 
(ending  June  30th),  as  follows  : 


1871 8,770 

1872 56,110 

1873 99,720 

1874 158,581 

1875 04,979 

68,044 

1877 65,107 

29,284 

1879 75,129 


IBM. 83.4*4 

1881. 77,456 

1882 36,368 

1883. 16,129 

1884 46,3*2 

1885..., 55,025 

1886 71.1-7 

1887 75,383 


1888. 23,755 

1889 45,128 

1890 91,148 

1891 95,654 

1892 31,963 

1893. 27,375 

1894 1,553 

1895 7,130 


The  exports  of  bacon  (including  sides,  hams  and 
shoulders),  pork  and  lard,  to  foreign  countries,  as  offi- 
cially reported  by  the  Statistical  Bureau,  for  each  of  the 
twenty-five  years  ending  June  30,  were  : 


Bacon,  Ibs. 

Pork,  Ibs. 

Lard,  Ibs. 

AverageEx- 
port  value, 
etc.  per  Ib. 

Total  value. 

1871 

71,446,854 

39,250,750 

80,037,297 

12.05 

$22,992,023 

1872 

•J4i;.208,143 

57,169,518 

199,651,660 

8.99 

45,426,519 

1873 

395,381,737 

64,147,461 

230,534,207 

8.88 

61,274,987 

1874 

347,405,405 

70,482,379 

205,527,471 

9.38 

88,WX),<W9 

1875 

250,28(5,549 

56,152,331 

166,869,393 

12.08 

57,184,630 

1876 

327,730,172 

54,195,118 

168,405,839 

12.32 

67,837,963 

is;  7 

460,057,146 

69,671,894 

234,741,233 

10.64 

81,371,491 

1>7S 

592,814,351 

71,889,255 

342,766,254 

8.60 

86,687,858 

1879 

732,249,576 

84,401,676 

326,658,686 

6.90 

78,738,674 

isso 

759,773,109 

95,949,780 

374,979,286 

6.89 

84,838,242 

UH 

740,944,545 

107,928.086 

378.142,496 

8.49 

1  04,6150,065 

1882 

466.008,040 

80,447,466 

250,367.740 

10.37 

82,852,946 

1883 

340/258,670 

62,116,302 

224,718,474 

11.32 

70,906,'268 

1884 

389,499,368 

60,363,313 

265,094,719 

9.75 

69,740,456 

1885 

400,127,119 

72.07:3,468 

283,216,339 

8.59 

64,883,110 

1886 

419,788,796 

87.267,715 

293,728,019 

7.13 

57,125,408 

1887 

419,922,955 

85,869,367 

321,533,746 

7.45 

61,658,685 

MB 

375,439,683 

58,900.153 

297,740,007 

8.10 

59,299,852 

1889 

400,2-24,646 

64,133,639 

318,242,990 

8.52 

66,716,097 

1890 

608,490,956 

80,068,331 

471,083,598 

7.35 

85,281,174 

1891 

599,085,665 

82,136,239 

498,343,927 

7.19 

84,908,698 

1892 

584,776,389 

80,714,227 

460,045,776 

7.56 

85,116,566 

1893 

473,936,329 

53,372,366 

365,693,501 

9.46 

84,554,822 

1894 

503,628,148 

64,744,528 

447,566,867 

9.19 

93,433,5X2 

1895 

558,044,099 

58,266,893 

474,895,274 

8.22 

89,696,768 

S  \VI\K    Hl/SH  AN  DRY. 


The  quantity  and  value  of  lard  oil  exported  in  the 
twenty-five  years  subsequent  to  and  including  1871,  end- 
ing June  30,  is  stated  as  follows : 


Year. 


1871 
1872 
i*::i 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1*81 
18X2 


Gallons. 


533,147 

•MM 
w^sn 


1.6.-.1.MH 

1,963.208 

1,507.590 

836,255 


Value. 


153,850 
432.4X3 

203.317 
147,3X4 
149.156 


8111.447 
55X.&76 
434,124 


ValllH 


K4.09 
81.12 
76.31 


100.54 
n-l  '..;{ 
ILM 
60.21 
52.87 
54.15 
66.79 
85.75 
93.14 


Year. 


I.w4 
18X5 


1887 


iv.»l 

UN 
1893 
1K94 
UN 


Gallons. 


975.Ha 


1.214.611 
1.092.448 
901,575 
4X6.X12 
681,0X1 
653,421 


Value. 

504,218 

:,:,-,.. i :,; 

500,011 

:.r.'.j;i 


M2,8tl7 

.......  i.; 

Afl2.9Wi 


£16.613 
449.571 


Value 


ao.a 

.-.i  • 

BUI 
D4.fl 
BMI 

M .-.i 


.  •.'  i i 
»M 


The  following  table  shows  the  distribution  of  American 
hog  products  by  exportation  to  the  principal  purchasing 
countries,  and  the  quantities  taken  by  each,  and  their 
value,  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1895  : 


Count  n.s 

•Bacon,  Ite. 

Pork,  Ibd. 

Lartl.  ll»s. 

•  •    -  .     i  t.  .    .  .,  i  ,  ,  1  1  1 

»....  "i  .  H  ' 

1  »    >.-  M.  • 

9  84"  04X 

•'36  600 

34  665  860 

15,137  893 

2  149  850 

104  121  137 

258000 

'.'  u:i,192 

491,282 

28.456,561 

1  >-•  ii  in  .1  1  k           

458,019 

8,901  4».; 

Sweden  and  Norway  

?.61  8,924 
60^16 

107,900 

'  70,134 

Italy 

20  915 

625  769 

Cuba 

9,067,529 

4*1*'  «>40 

'    '1  • 

Hay  ti  

13/X)7/t50 

3,267  090 

Porto  Rico  

1,079.1^3 

3,285,200 

.;  ii  i  nt 

British  West  Indies  
Mexico 

.VMJ.37X 
297,599 

•_''(I«W 

2.4UI.443 
1  !M)H  07G 

Brazil                    .... 

1,1  £1,292 

(°<>l<>iiil>ia  .       

•is'-Hr1 

X3,;M4 

1  1>28  235 

Venezuela  

OXOA1)! 

25,200 

6,754,790 

British  Guiana  
Peru 

aa,xo3 

2,8X5,190 

1   .  IINI 

.-.'••.  4; 
>••  ^',1 

Quebec,  Out.,  etc.t  
Nova  Scotia  etc    

7,124,42(> 
66,7!)8 

4,757,080 
1,208,443 

71,'ll2 

Newfoundland,  etc  
AllOther  

203,228 

1,825,490 

2,020,310 
3.X49.949 

1-7.  «i.»i 
8,415,008 

Total 

558  044  099 

5X  266  X93 

474  895  274 

Value.  . 

SIX.736.8eO 

M.138.40Q 

-     -i.':."- 

•Includes  sides,  hain.s  ami  shoulders. 

t  Includes  Manitoba,  Northwest  Territories  and  British  Columbia. 

Below  is  seen  the  total  number  of  hogs  packed  in  the 
West  during  winter  seasons,  and  cost  of  hogs  per  one 


INTRODUCTORY. 


13 


hundred  pounds  gross,  for  fifty  years,  according  to  Cin- 
cinnati Price  Current  special  repprts  : 


Season. 

No. 

Cost. 

Season. 

No. 

Cost. 

1895-96  
1894-95 

6,815,800 
7  191  520 

s;i.«;s 
4  28 

1869-70  
1868-69     .     ... 

2,635,312 
2  499  873 

$9.22 
8  18 

1893-94 

4  884  082 

5  26 

1867-68  

2  781  084 

6  36 

1892-93 

4  633  520 

654 

1866-67  

2490  791 

5.78 

1891-92          .    ... 

7  761,216 

391 

1865-66  

1,785,955 

934 

1890-91  

8,173,126 

3.54 

1881-65  

2,422,779 

11.46 

1889-90 

*    6  663,802 

3  66 

1888-64  

3  261  105 

536 

1888-89 

5483852 

4.99 

1862-63  

4069  520 

3.36 

1887-88 

5  921  181 

5  04 

1861-62 

2  893  666 

2  42 

1886-87 

6  439  009 

4  19 

1860-61     . 

2  155  702 

4  57 

1885-86. 

6,298^995 

3.66 

1859-60  

2  350  822 

4  73 

1884-85  

6460240 

429 

1858-59  

2,465  552 

502 

1883-84. 

5  402  064 

5  18 

1857-68 

2  210  778 

3  89 

1882-83 

6  13°  212 

628 

1856-57     

1  818,468 

4  75 

1881-82    

5,747  760 

6.06 

1855-56  

2,489,602 

460 

1880-81 

6  919488 

4  64 

1854-55 

2  124  404 

3  37 

1879-80 

6  950  451 

4  18 

1853-54     .     .  . 

2634  770 

3  35 

1878-79 

7  480  648 

285 

1852-53  

2  201  110 

4  81 

1877-78    

6505,416 

3.99 

1851-52  

1,182,846 

356 

1870-77 

5  101  308 

5  74 

1850-51 

1  33°  867 

3  00 

l&75-76 

4  880  135 

7  05 

1840-50 

1  652  220 

2  13 

1874-75 

r.  :*',<'•  •'•'<• 

666 

1848-49  

1,560  000 

3.75 

1873-74    

5466200 

4.34 

1847-48  

1,710,000 

2.60 

1872-73 

5  410  314 

3  73 

1846-47 

800000 

2  85 

1871-72 

4*831,668 

4  12 

1845-46 

900  000 

3  90 

1870-71  

3,695,251 

5.26 

The  following  table  indicates  the  average  gross  weights 
of  hogs  packed  in  the  West  during  winter  seasons  for 
fifteen  years,  the  average  pounds  of  lard  yielded  per  hog, 
and  their  cost  per  one  hundred  pounds  a"live. 


Season. 

Gross  Wei  glit, 
per  hog. 

Lbs.  of  Lard, 
all  kinds. 

Cost  Alive, 
per  100  Ibs. 

1895-96    

"4M  71 

35  53 

<'t  UK 

1894-95  

232  73 

33  62 

4  28 

1893-94 

''48  'J(> 

36  07 

5  26 

189°-93         ... 

227  73 

31  66 

6  54 

1891-92  

247  64 

34  69 

3  91 

1890-91 

239  75 

33  45 

3  54 

1889-90 

250  ff> 

36  37 

3  66 

1888-89          

963  46 

34  76 

4  99 

1887-88  

242.30 

31.06 

5.04 

1886-87 

251  31 

33  54 

4  19 

1885-86 

258  98 

35  «>2 

3  66 

1884-85          

266  51 

36  0;) 

4  29 

1883-84  

251  44 

33  ''5 

5  ig 

188''-83 

267  O1' 

35  43 

6  28 

1881-82  

262.70 

36'.44 

6.06 

The  average  live  weight  of  hogs,  average  cost  per  one 
hundred  pounds  live  weight,  and  percentage  yield  of 
lard  from  those  packed  at  the  points  named,  in  the  win- 
ter seasons  of  1894-95  and  1895-96,  is  shown  as  follows : 


.MYJNJ-; 


Chicago 

Kaunas  City.... 
South  Omaha.. 

St.  Louis 

Indianapolis  .. 

Cincinnati 

Milwaukee  — 

Cmlahy 

Cleveland 

St.  Paul 

Cedar  Rapids.. 

Ottuniwa 

Louisville 

Sioux  City 

Detroit 

St.  Joseph 

Nebraska  City. 

Pes  Moinec 

Kcokuk  

Lincoln  

All  polnto 


Average   Weight. 


IBBB-W. 


MB 

•j  ».;.:,; 


224.73 


888.4* 

M8.91 


190UM 
225.00 

1M4.INI 


•."-•4.-J1 


211.00 

tiTH.OO 


'.'40.71 


HUB 
BUN 

u  n 


1SK.OO 
230.00 
2-J6.00 

u&m 

2^7.91 

•."_•«  Li  «• 
215.13 


23T..OO 
2B.OO 
21.">.00 
•J15.JIO 
23-J.73 


<   ust,   UNI   I),,. 


tttt-tt,     UB44V. 


3.67 
'3^5 
3.68 
Ml 
3.71 
3.67 
3.08 
UB 
BJB 
3.52 
3.50 
3.67 
3.46 
3.HO 
3.45 
3.53 
3.50 
3.50 
3.51 
MB 


4.16 
4.13 
4.28 
4.34 
4.35 
4.46 
4.35 
4.40 
4.15 
4.15 
4.15 
»  ••< 
4.15 
UB 
4.15 
4.15 
4.09 
4.19 
4.00 
4.28 


Lard  percent. 


iv ,;,-,,. 

1.,:,:. 
1MB 


14.25 

1MB 

1  j.:.:. 
11.48 
12.70 
Hfl 
UJfl 
13.27 

i:t.7o 

15.15 

1..J7 

1MB 

li.03 
15.23 
14.04 
13.26 
14.76 


n  n 

14.11 

14.71 

13,70 

n  i- 
1MB 
13.43 
IM7 

i.,  « 

11. H5 


12.91 
1MB 

14.41 
13.?2 
11.16 
14.44 


COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  THE  HOG  PRODUCT.  15 

CHAPTER    IL 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  THE  HOG  PRODUCT. 

The  importance  and  value  to  our  people  of  the  swine 
grown  in  the  United  States,  compared  with  other  kinds 
of  live  stock,  as  shown  by  official  figures,  and  records 
that  are  beyond  question,  are  quite  astonishing  to  those 
who,  for  the  first  time,  have  them  brought  to  their  at- 
tention. So  long  as  these  animals  bring  to  the  coffers 
of  Americans  more  money  than  any  other  single  agricul- 
tural product,  unless  it  may  be  wheat  or  cotton,  they  are 
certain  to  occupy  a  very  high  position  in  the  estimation 
of  the  producers.  Of  the  money-producing  value  of 
swine,  as  compared  with  cattle,  Hon.  John  M.  Millikin, 
of  Ohio,  one  of  the  most  experienced  and  intelligent  ob- 
servers in  this  direction  that  our  country  has  ever  had, 
several  years  ago  made  some  careful  estimates,  based  on 
authentic  data,  that  reveal  what  to  many  will  be  a  con- 
dition of  affairs  not  before  suspected.  Basing  his  figures 
on  the  United  States  Census  for  1870,  he  says  :  "The 
number  of  cattle  then  in  the  country  was  23,820,508,  and 
of  swine  25,703,813.  In  the  five  stock  producing  States 
of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Missouri, 
there  were  6,031,819  cattle,  and  10,446,198  swine,  the 
excess  of  the  latter  over  tho* -former  being  about  or  up- 
wards of  70  per  cent.  In  view  of  the  above,  from  which 
source  do  the  people  of  the  States  named  derive  the 
largest  amount  of  money  per  annum? 

"  The  question  cannot  be  answered  with  entire  accu- 
racy, because  there  are  no  certain  data  by  which  to 
determine  the  number  or  percentage  of  each  kind  of  ani- 
mals sold,  or  the  price  realized  for  each  head,  and  yet  the 


16  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

result  can  be  closely  approximated.  Cattle  are  usually 
sold  at  ages  varying  from  three  to  six  years  ;  milch  cows 
and  working  cattle,  which  constitute  42  percent  of  the 
entire  number,  as  above  stated,  generally  attain  an  age 
exceeding  six  years  before  they  are  sold  to  go  out  of  the 
country.  As  cattle,  including  all  classes,  have  to  arrive 
at  an  age  above  three  years,  it  is  safe  to  say  there  are  not 
more  than  one-fourth  the  t»  umber  enumerated  sold  in  each 
year.  With  hogs  it  is  quite  different.  They  are  shipped 
off  at  an  average  age  of  about  fifteen  months,  and  it  is 
therefore  fair  to  assume  that  at  least  four-fifths  of  the 
hogs  enumerated  in  1870  were  sold  within  a  year  from 
the  time  of  enumeration. 

"  Upon  these  data  let  us  make  a  calculation  : 

"Upon  the  hypothesis  stated,  that  one-fourth  of  the 
cattle  enumerated  would  be  sold  during  the  year,  there 
would  be  sold  1,507,054.  Estimating  the  average  value 
of  the  same  as  consumed  upon  the  farm,  or  sold  and 
shipped  at  130  j>er  head,  they  would  amount  to  the 
sum  of  145,238,620.  The  total  number  of  hogs  in  the 
above  States  being  10,446,198,  four-fifths  of  which  were 
sold  during  the  year,  would  make  the  number  sold 
8,356,952.  Estimating  these  on  the  farm,  when  sold  or 
consumed,  at  the  moderate  price  of  $8  per  head,  the  to- 
tal value  is  $66,955,672,  making  the  excess  received  per 
annum  for  hogs,  over  amount  received  for  cattle,  in  the 
five  States  named,  $21, 717,052. 

"  I  am  a  wan1  that  the  above  showing  will  be  satisfac- 
tory to  only  a  few  persons,  and  that  it  will  be  sharply 
criticised  by  others.  I  have  made  it  upon  the  above  data, 
with  a  view  to  seeing  what  the  result  would  be,  and  not 
with  a  view  of  depreciating  the  value  and  advantages  of 
raising  cattle,  nor  of  unduly  exalting  the  business  of  rais- 
ing pork." 

At  the  present  time,  Chicago  is  considered  the  greatest 
live  stock  market  in  the  world,  and  the  statistics  of  the 


VALUE   OF  THE   HOG    PRODUCT. 

live  stock  trade  there,  for  the  year  1873,  disclose  the 
startling  fact  that  swine  not  only  brought  more  money 
into  the  pockets  of  the  people  than  any  other  description 
of  live  stock,  but  more  than  all  other  kinds  together,  as 
may  be  seen  by  an  examination  of  the  following  table  of 
actual  receipts  and  actual  sales  in  the  open  market : 

Receipts.  Sales. 

Cattle 761,428  $35,264,260 

Sheep 291,734  875,000 

Horses *),289  2,028,902 

Hogs 4,337,750  53,153,000 

From  these  figures,  it  is  seen  that  the  value  of  the 
hogs  marketed  there,  exceeded  that  of  all  other  live  stock 
by  nearly  $15,000,000,  and  this  does  not  include  any  part 
of  the  value  of  the  dressed  hogs,  lard,  barrelled  pork,  and 
cut  meats  received,  the  cash  value  of  which  amounted  to 
$8,444,494,  in  the  same  period,  making  a  total  value  of 
$61,597,494. 

Chicago  also  boasts  of  being  the  leading  grain  market 
of  the  world,  and  during  the  same  year  (1873),  her  trade 
was  a  prosperous  one,  the  receipts  aggregating  10,000,000 
bushels  more  than  in  the  previous  year,  and  the  estimated 
value  of  this  vast  quantity  was  $63,500,000,  scarcely 
$2,000,000  more  than  the  <aluc  of  the  hogs  and  hog  pro- 
ducts handled  in  the  same  market  in  that  year. 

The  value  of  the  hog  product  exported  in  1872  from  the 
United  States,  exceeded  $45,000,000,  of  which  England 
alone  took  $22,247,167, — more  than  the  entire  exporta- 
tion of  cattle  products  for  the  same  year. 

With  our  fertile,  and  seemingly  inexhaustible  soils, 
both  upon  the  broad  prairies  and  countless  creek  and  river 
oottoms,  the  great  staple  crop  is,  and  ever  will  be,  Indian 
corn — the  grain  above  all  others  best  adapted  to  the  pro- 
duction of  pork ;  and  it  is  by  and  through  these  enor- 
mous corn  crops  that  we  do  and  can  hold  the  pork  markets 
of  the  world  at  command. 

who  prepare  for  pork-making  with  well  defined 


18  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

plans,  and  pursue  them  with  system  and  regularity,  keep- 
ing none  but  the  best  breeds  and  their  crosses,  can  be 
quite  certain  of  realizing  more  satisfactory  prices  for  tln-ir 
corn,  taking  the  seasons  together,  than  by  selling  it  at 
ruling  prices,  even  at  their  own  doors  ;  while  if  hauled 
from  home,  its  cost  is  increased  in  proportion  to  the  dis- 
tance, from  five  to  fifteen  cents  per  bushel. 

To  illustrate  the  importance  of  raising  the  better  grades 
of  hogs,  we  will  use  some  figures  from  a  circular  issued  by 
the  "Cincinnati  Merchants'  Exchange"  a  few  years  since, 
which  says  :  "  Whole  number  of  hogs  packed  during  the 
past  season,  at  the  principal  points  in  the  United  States, 
was  4,782,403  ;  aggregate  weight,  1,349,630,955  pounds, 
or  an  average  weight  of  282'  |4  pounds.  The  total  amount 
of  money  paid  for  same  was  $55,818,711."— If  well  bred,i 
well  fed,  well  cared  for,  and  properly  fattened,  they  should 
have  averaged  one  hundred  pounds  more  per  head,  adding 
to  the  aggregate  weight  478,240,300  pounds,  which,  at 
four  cents  per  pound,  would  have  added  to  the  wealth  of 
the  producers,  in  a  single  year,  the  snug  sum  of  $19,129,- 
612.  Truly  no  insignificant  increase  of  one  year's  receipts, 
and  on  the  same  basis  amounting  in  twenty  years  to 
$382,592,240— money  enough  to  lift  the  mortgages  from 
the  farms  of  a  large  number  of  worthy  gentlemen  who 
think  that  one  hog  is  just  as  good  as  another. 


BREEDS   OF   SWINE 


THEIR     CHARACTERISTICS     AND 
WORTH. 


19 


\ 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE   POLAND-CHINAS. 

Probably  no  questions  have  been  more  frequently  pro- 
pounded to  agricultural  and  live  stock  journals,  than 
those  as  to  the  origin,  history  and  correct  name  of  the 
large  spotted  hogs,  exceedingly  popular  in  the  Western 
States,  and  which  are  called,  by  different  breeders,  and 
in  different  localities,  by  a  great  diversity  of  names. 
Among  the  names  which  have  been  given  them,  are : 
"Magie,"  "Butler  County,"  "Warren  County,"  "Mi- 
ami Valley,"  "Poland,"  "Poland  and  China,"  "Great 
Western,"  "Shaker,"  "Union  Village,"  "Dick's  Creek," 
"Gregory's  Creek,"  "Moore," and  others;  and  inquiries 
are  frequent  as  to  their  characteristics,  and  if  all  the 
hogs  thus  named  are  not  the  same  breed,  which  is  best? 
The  wranglings  and  discussions,  by  the  breeders  and 
friends  of  the  different  strains  of  these  hogs,  as  to  their 
origin,  the  most  suitable  and  expressive  name  for  the 
breed,  and  who  should  have  most  credit  for  efforts  to 
perfect  and  bring  them  into  popular  favor,  would,  if 
published,  fill  volumes.  The  following,  prepared  by 
Hon.  L.  N.  Bon  ham,  who  has  for  many  years  been  not 
only  a  citizen  of  Butler  county,  but  a  breeder  of  these 
hogs,  and  who  has  made  them  and  their  history  a  long 
study,  was  adopted  in  1887,  by  the  National  Swine 
Breeders'  Association,  as  the  official  history  of  the  breed, 
and  hence  it  is  given  here  as  the  accepted  version,  in 
lieu  of  what  has  before  been  published  on  this  great  and 
foremost  family  of  pork  makers  : 

The  Poland-China  hog  originated  in  the  Miami  valley,  and 
it  is  nowhere  apparent  that  it  originated  from  the  purpose  or 
work  of  any  one  individual.  The  conditions  of  soil,  climate, 
produce,  and  markets  of  that  region,  all  favored  the  business 

21 


CTVINE   HUSBANDS. 


THE   POLAND-CHINA^.  23 

of  swine  growing,  and,  as  a  result,  early  in  the  history  of  Ohio 
Cincinnati  became,  for  a  time,  the  greatest  pork-packing  cen- 
ter in  the  world,  and  made  pork  producing  the  most  profitable 
feature  of  farming  in  the  surrounding  country. 

The  farmers  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio  were  deeply  interested 
in  ihf  common  effort  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  market,  and 
secure  the  best  possible  rewards  for  their  labor  and  enterprise. 
Before  the  advent  of  improved  roads,  canals  and  railways,  the 
concentration  of  farm  products  into  animals  that  could  be 
driven  to  market,  induced  a  general  improvement  of  not  only 
the  swine,  but  the  cattle  also,  of  that  region.  Under  the  com- 
mon law  of  selection,  as  well  as  by  importation  of  improved 
breeds,  by  the  peculiarly  favorable  conditions  of  climate,  feed 
and  water,  by  the  influence  of  trade  and  fashion,  the  Poland- 
China  breed  of  swine  originated  and  developed  from  the  com- 
mon hog  of  the  Miami  valley,  until  it  has  become  the  leading 
breed  of  the  State  and  many  parts  of  the  country. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that  in  the  earliest  history  of 
this  breed,  we  had  not,  in  Ohio  and  in  the  West,  such  facilities 
for  making  a  record  of  the  work  done  and  maaiie  employed  by 
the  farmers  of  the  Miami  valley,  as  we  now  have  in  the  nu- 
merous and  able  stock  journals  and  agricultural  papers  of  this 
day. 

Prior  to  1889  there  was  no  paper  in  the  West  specially  inter- 
ested in  agriculture  or  live-stock  matters.  Hence  most  of  the 
earliest  history  ot  the  breed,  and  of  swine  raising  in  the  West 
prior  to  that  date,  is  purely  traditional.  Happily,  however, 
about  the  time  the  interest  in  pork  growing  became  the  lead- 
ing feature  of  agriculture  in  the  Miami  valley,  the  Western 
Farmer  was  started  in  Cincinnati,  in  September,  1889.  Its 
editor,  Thomas  Affleck,  was  a  man  of  intelligence  and  a  lover 
of  stock.  Associated  with  him  was  Charles  Foster,  who  was 
skillful  with  his  pencil  as  well  as  with  his  pen,  and  left  many 
well  executed  cuts  and  descriptions  of  animals  of  southern 
Ohio  and  northern  Kentucky.  The  written  testimony  of  these 
two  men  may  be  accepted  as  the  most  accurate  and  valuable 
of  any  now  available. 

The  history  of  the  English  breeds  has  been  better  preserved 
in  the  writings  of  Prof.  Low,  and  earlier  English  writers. 
That  of  the  Berkshires  is,  perhaps,  best  known  of  any  existing 
breeds.  It  is  valuable  as  a  help  to  show  how  breeds  originated. 
The  history  of  these  two  best  known  breeds  illustrates  forcibly 
a  principle  in  breeding  announced  by  Prof.  Brewer,  of  New 


24  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Haven.  It  is  this:  "A  breed  of  animals  is  never  made  by 
crossing  two  and  only  two  distinct  breeds,  and  preserving  tin- 
better  qualities  of  both.  I  am  not  aware,"  he  says,  "that 
there  is  any  such  case  on  record,  among  all  the  countless 
breeds  of  our  domestic  animals.  But  new  breeds  are  often 
made  of  several  original  breeds  by  a  selection  from  the  mon- 
•v  grel  progeny." 

The  evolution  of  the  Berkshire  from  the  old  English  hog, 
the  Chinese,  the  Neapolitan,  the  Siamese,  illustrates  this  prin- 
ciple, though  it  has  occupied  nearly  a  century  of  time  and 
study  of  many  indefatigable  breeders.  Its  history  is  full  of 
interest  to  all  breeders  of  swine,  because  it  is  better  under- 
stood, being  more  fully  recorded  in  the  current  writings  of 
this  epoch  than  that  of  any  other  breed  of  swine.  Now,  as 
this  breed  is  so  important  a  factor  in  the  early  history  of 
swine  breeding  in  the  Miami  valley,  we  may  first  consider  it . 
tb  better  understand  the  part  played  by  the  several  breeds  em- 
ployed in  the  make-up  of  the  one  breed,  which,  following  the 
law  of  "  survival  of  the  fittest,"  has  survived  and  superseded 
all  the  others,  and  has  become  the  chief  in  the  counties  and 
State  where  it  had  its  origin. 

THE  BERKSHIRE  ELEMENT. 

By  noting  characteristics  of  the  several  breeds  employed  in 
the  early  formation  of  the  Berkshire  breed,  one  may  see  why 
they  were  used,  and  where  the  lop  ears,  sandy  or  reddish- 
brown  color,  spotted  with  black,  described  by  Prof.  Low  in 
1842,  came  from.  Then,  by  following  along  down  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  one  will  see  how,  by  selection,  these  undesired 
features  were  eliminated,  and  how,  by  judicious  crossing  and 
selection,  have  been  substituted  the  erect  ear,  the  solid  black 
color,  artistically  relieved  by  the  clean  white  on  the  face  and 
feet  and  tip  of  the  tail. 

No  artist's  brush  could  place  the  colors  more  deftly  and  in 
more  complete  harmony.  The  art  of  the  breeder  is  further 
handsomely  illustrated  in  the  molding  of  the  approved  form, 
the  graceful  outline,  and  in  securing  a  harmony  of  colors  now 
accepted  as  that  of  the  ideal  standard  Berkshire.  But  this 
was  reached  only  by  persistent  and  long-continued  selection 
and  use  of  crosses  intended  to  eliminate  or  correct  the  unde- 
sirable characteristics  of  the  early  specimens  of  this  noted 
breed.  A.  B.  Allen  says  that  in  1841,  aged  men  in  Berkshire, 
England,  told  him  that  the  breed  had  been  known  by  them 


THE   POLAND-CHINAS.  25 

from  earliest  childhood,  and  yet  he  and  they  were  still  using 
Siamese  crosses  —  so  persistent  were  the  original  colors  and 
traits  and  tendencies  to  reversion  to  the  hateful  characteristics 
of  the  old  English  hog,  such  as  slow  feeding,  coarseness  of 
ear,  hair  and  form,  and  the  mixed,  uncertain  colors.  Prof. 
Low  tells  of  the  use  of  the  Chinese  boars  as  late  as  1842,  to 
refine  and  improve  the  feeding  quality  of  this  long-known 
breed. 

MONGRELS,  OR  MIXED  BREEDS. 

The  Bedfords,  or  Woburns,  are  spoken  of  in  the  Genesee 
Farmer  of  1838,  as  having  strenuous  advocates  in  Massachu- 
setts and  near  Baltimore.  In  Bedfordshire,  England,  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  who  was  a  successful  breeder  of  Berkshires, 
is  spoken  of  as  an  advocate  of  the  Bedfords  as  a  most  prolific 


In  Massachusetts,  the  name  of  Woburn  was  given  the  breed. 
Youatt  says  of  them  (p.  96):  "Some  admirable'  pigs  were 
sent  to  the  great  cattle  shows  of  London.  They  were  crosses 
of  various  kinds,  in  which  it  appeared  to  us  the  Suffolk  strain 
was  prevalent."  Affleck  (p.  86),  in  his  chapter  on  hogs  in 
Ohio  and  Kentucky,  says  :  "The  variation  in  the  character 
of  the  half  dozen  different  sorts  of  Bodfords  is  also  great  in 
size,  color  and  form."  He  believes  those  in  America  were 
descended  from  an  importation  by  a  Mr.  Parkinson,  an  Eng- 
lishman, who  lived  near  Baltimore  some  eighty  odd  years  ago. 
These  were  most  probably  a  mongrel  from  use  of  Berkshire 
and  Sussex  hogs.  As  bred  in  Kentucky  and  Ohio  in  1840, 
Mr.  Affleck  says:  "They  vary  a  good  deal  in  appearance. 
The  head,  neck  and  ears  are  fine,  the  latter  somewhat  rounded 
and  leaning  forward  and  outward;  the  shoulder  generally 
good,  though  from  close  breeding  there  is  a  sinking  back  of 
the  shoulder  in  a  majority  of  them  ;  the  back  otherwise  re- 
markably fine,  slightly  arched,  very  broad,  the  ribs  coming 
finely  out  and  supporting  the  belly  better  than  is  common  in 
any  other  breed  ;  the  loins  slender,  but  high  above  the  shoul- 
ders to  a  very  great  degree  ;  the  rump  drooping  rather  sud- 
denly ;  the  ham  large,  but  not  as  thick  and  round  as  it  might 
be  ;  twist  fair  ;  the  flank  in  some  good,  in  others  badly  tucked  ; 
the  legs  generally  so  good  as  to  resemble  those  of  a  deer  much 
more  than  of  a  hog;  the  bones  stout  and,  though  large,  not 
too  mucn  for  an  animal  of  their  size,  which  is  equal  to  500  or 
600  pounds  af  eighteen  months  or  two  years,  with  good  keep  ; 


2(J  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

the  skin  good  and  the  handling  very  fine;  the  hair  long, 
coarse  and  harsh ;  said  to  fatten  kindly  at  any  age  and  upon  a 
less  amount  of  food  than  any  others."  The  celebrated  Banter 
pigs  were  of  this  breed,  and  fed  against  a  pair  of  imported 
Berkshires,  "  beat  them  a  long  way." 

As  to  color,  "some  were  white  and  some  were  sandy,  with 
numerous  large  black  spots."  The  same  writer  says  of  the 
improved  Berkshire  of  1840,  he  fully  believes  "  they  will  sur- 
pass the  Woburns  on  similar  keep."  He  says:  "  The  im  pro*ti 
Berkshire  more  nearly  approaches  the  ne  plus  ultra  of  a  per- 
fect animal  of  this  kind  than  any  other.  His  form  is  perfect; 
his  legs  are,  however,  too  frequently  faulty,  though  by  no 
means  always  so." 

The  Berkshire  was  first  introduced  into  the  Miami  valley  in 
1885,  by  Mr.  Munson  Beach  and  Mr.  John  Reed,  from  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  the  former  bringing  a  boar,  Dick  Johnson,  and  the 
latter  a  sow,  Superior. 

BY  FIELDS. 

In  1888,  the  Qenesee  Farmer  speaks  of  a  formidable  rival  to 
the  Bedfords  as  having  arisen  in  the  eastern  part  of  MuKsachu- 
setts.  Essex  county  claims  the  honor  of  originating  it  aa  fol- 
lows :  "  A  farmer  in  Byfield  found,  accidentally,  in  the  mar- 
ket, a  pig  of  remarkable  apj>carance,  and  this  laid  htm  the 
foundation  of  the  breed  known  as  the  Byfield  breed." 

Mr.  Affleck  described  them  as  he  found  them  in  Warren  and 
Butler  counties,  Ohio,  in  1842,  where  then  they  were  highly 
esteemed  as  a  cross  with  the  Russian.  He  says:  "  By  fields 
are  of  great  size,  white,  with  heavy  lopped  ears,  flat-aided, 
but  of  great  length,  and  others  that  are  beautifully  white, 
their  ears  small,  pointing  to  their  nose,  broad  back,  deep  chest, 
large  jowl,  short  nose,  dished  face  and  thin  hair."  (P.  86, 
Affleck.)  Different  grade  crosses  of  these  and  Russian,  and 
again  with  the  Chinas,  have  produced  the  large  hog  known  aa 
the  Warren  County  hog. 

THE  IRISH   GRAZIER. 

In  1889,  three  Irish  pigs  were  brought  to  Cincinnati  by  the 
father  of  W.  W.  Greer,  of  Oxford,  Ohio.  These  pigs  were 
brought,  as  thousands  of  others  have  been  before,  to  America 
by  emigrants  from  all  parts  of  the  world.  Mr.  Greer,  Sr., 
lived  near  the  seacoast,  where  they  raised  vast  quantities  of 
potatoes,  on  which  the  hogs  were  raised  and  fattened.  Martin 
(p.  98)  says  of  Irish  pigs :  «•  The  plan  of  fattening  on  potatoes 


THE   POLAND-CHINAS.  ft 

is  not  calculated  to  do  justice  to  the  most  approved  breeds/' 
He  further  says  (p.  98):  "Latterly  the  introduction  of  some 
of  our  best  breeds  (from  England)  with  which  to  cross  the  old 
Irish  swim-,  had  been  attended  with  decided  success,  although 
there  is  room  for  further  improvement.  Herkshire,  Suffolk, 
Yorkshire  and  some  Chinese  boars  and  sows  have  been  intro- 
duced." Thus  we  see  that  the  eo-called  Irish  Grazier  imported 
into  Ohi<*  \\a-  a  mongrel.  These  Greer  pigs  went  into  the 
hands  ot  William  Neff,  a  pork  packer  of  Cincinnati,  with 
whom  Mr.  Greer  was  employed  in  cutting  |>ork  the  first  winter 
of  his  residence  in  Ohio. 

Mr.  Neff  also  imported  other  Irish  pigs  and  sent  them  into 
Warren  County,  where  their  impress  on  the  swine  of  that 
region  was  marked  and  favorable. 

Mr.  Affleck,  speaking  of  the  boar,  Poppet,  imported  by  Wm. 
Neff,  said  :  "  He  would  weigh  about  450  or  500  pounds  when 
matured,  and  is  a  very  finely  formed  animal."  Some  of  that 
importation  and  their  descendants  carry  their  ears  pricked ; 
they  have  fine  length,  a  splendid  barrel,  good  legs  and  very 
fair  hams.  The  hair  is  scant,  though  fine,  and  the  skin  un- 
pleasantly scurfy  but  handling  well.  The  cross  of  the  Berk- 
shire boar  and  Irish  sow  was  called  Bettys,  and  was  considered, 
by  many,  better  stock  than  either.  In  this  connection,  Mr. 
Affleck  said,  in  1842:  "The  Berkshires,  Woburns  and  the 
Irish  Graziers  seem  to  us  the  most  likely  to  be  of  most  use, 
and  are  certainly  those  attracting  most  attention  at  this 
time"  (1842). 

In  the  Western  Stock  Journal  of  1870,  published  by  J.  H. 
Sanders  &  Co.,  at  Sigourney,  Iowa,  T.  J.  Conover  said  :  "  The 
Irish  Grazier  is  white,  with  a  few  spots  of  black ;  upright  ears, 
light  jowl,  fine  coating,  and  would  fatten  at  any  age.  They 
are  the  stock  of  hogs  that  gave  the  Poland-Chinas  their  fine 
coating  and  symmetrical  form."  He  also  said  :  "John  I  la  rk- 
rader  took  an  interest  in  the  Irish  Grazier  and  commenced  an 
improvement  on  that  breed." 

THE  RUSSIAN  HOG. 

Of  this  breed,  Cuthbert  Johnson,  in  his  Cyclopedia  of  Rural 
Affairs,  after  describing  the  several  fresh  breeds  of  swine, 
•peaks  of  "other  European  breeds."  Among  these  he  names 
the  Polish  and  Russian  breed  as  one  and  the  same,  and  de- 
scribes it  as  being  "generally  small,  and  of  a  reddish  or  yel- 
lowish color."  Albert  D.  Tbaer,  of  Germany,  in  his  great 


;>  8WJKB  HUSBANDRY. 

work,  The  Principle*  of  Agriculture.  1810-12,  in  enumerating 
and  describing  the  breeds  of  swine  in  North  Germany.  mj*i 
"The  breeds  of  swine  best  known  in  North  Germany,  but  ner- 
ertheleas  crossed  in  various  wars,  are  the  following:  Molda- 
vian. Wallachian  and  Bothnian  pig*,  distinguished  by  great 
size,  dark  gray  color  and  very  large  ears, 

"The  next  class  named  is  the  Polish,  or.  more  properly 
•peaking,  Podolian  pigs,  also  very  [large,  but  of  a  yellowieh 
color,  and  having  a  broad  brown  stripe  along  the  *pine.  These 
two  race*  furnish  very  large  pigs  for  fattening,  but  they  re- 
quire a  proportionately  large  quantity  of  fowl ;  beside*,  they 
are  not  very  productive;  the  sows  seldom  have  more  than 
three,  four  or  five  young  ones  at  n  birth." 

We  are  all  well  aware  that  what  Timer  has  here  said  of  this 
Polish  or  Podolian  pig  of  North  Germany  ha*  lieen  the  reliance 
of  some  who  have  tried  to  argue  the  Ututsian  hog  out  of  exist* 
ence.  Though  the  two  tawny  hree<l*  agree  in  the  *t ri|-  down 
the  back,  Timer  says:  "The  Polish  breed  *eldom  lias  more 
than  three  or  four  or  five  young  one*  at  n  litter."  while  it  is 
notorious  that  the  Reds  and  their  English  anrestnrs  are  most 
prolific.  It  is  not  probable  that  they  are  of  »itntlar  origin. 
That  there  was  a  larg«-  white  bnsil.  known  by  the  farmrrs  of 
Ohio  as  much  a*  seventy-five  years  ago  an  the  Kunsian  hog, 
there  is  abundance  of  living  ami  written  teMtimotiy.  Jntne*  K. 
Letton.  of  Millentbur^.  Ky..  in  IH|<I,  wrt»te  the  following  de- 
scription of  them:  "Their  color  t*  generally  white,  with 
long,  coarne  hair:  head  long  and  r««inwly  f«-atured ;  their  eam 
are  not  so  hrond  as  the  roiutnon  variety  of  the  n.untry.  yet 
longer  ami  narrower,  and  come*  regularly  to  a  |*»int.  firoject- 
ing  forward,  and  they  do  not  appear  to  luive  MI  tnttrh  com- 
mand of  them  as  other  breed* ;  they  have  fine  length  and 
bight,  their  lione  in  large  and  fine;  they  »tan<l  well  ti|M»n  their 
postern  joint*  ami  trackers  ;  quite  induttriouft  :  they  are  thick 
through  the  *houlder*.  indifferently  ril>be<l  (or  Kiiddenly  in- 
clined down);  their  plate  or  kidney  lione  rather  narrow  and 
oraling  than  otherwise  ;  luun*  pretty  good,  though  not  so 
good  as  the  Irish,  the  Bedford  or  the  Berkshire.  Yet  prefer- 
able as  is  the  variety,  they  do  not  grade  HO  well  as  many 
others:  they  want  more  time  to  bring  them  into  market  than 
the  above  breed*.  Give  them  fmm  eighteen  to  twenty 
months'  age,  they  will  make  very  large  hogs:  they  are  quite 
prolific,  their  usual  immU-r  lieing  from  nine  to  twelve  pigs  a 
litter.  I  have  found  their  mms  with  the  at>ove-named  breeds 


TIIK    1'  HI  NAB.  29 

to  be  A  valuable  acquisition  to  their  grazing,  aptitude  to  fatten 
and  rapid  growth  at  the  same  time."  That  this  Russian  hog 
was  extensively  used  as  one  of  the  earliest  crosses  for  the  im- 
provement of  the  swine  of  Ohio  and  Kentucky,  is  evident  from 
extant  writings  and  living  testimony. 

In  no  other  description  of  breeds  can  we  find  the  counter- 
part of  that  back  and  loin  which  lias  cost  us  so  much  time  and 
care  to  correct.  Mr.  Lettoo  well  described  it  as  ••  indifferently 
ribbed,  or  suddenly  inclining  down,  their  plate  or  kidney  bone 
rather  narrow  and  oval  ing  than  otherwise. n 

The  old  Harkrader  sow  had  this  Russian  back,  as  well  as  the 
rotor,  the  large,  fine  bone,  and  the  strong,  short  pasterns  and 
trackers.  How  this  hog  came  to  the  Miami  valley  and  Ken- 
tucky is  not  known.  His  source  and  coming  are  indefinable, 
but  that  this  so-called  Russian  hog  wo*  highly  esteemed  JIM  one 
of  the  tlrst  crosses  to  improve  the  common  hog  of  the  country, 
there  can  be  no  question.  As  to  the  color,  Mr.  Lutton  says 
they  were  "  generally  white.** 

T.  J.  Conover  Mid,  in  1870:  "The  Russian  hog  was  sandy 
and  black,  with  white,**  but,  like  hog*  generally  of  that  date, 
their  color  teenm  not  to  have  been  clearly  defined. 

•I  MI.  CHINA. 

The  breed  which  did  the  most  fur  the  improvement  of  the 
hogs  of  the  Miami  valley,  as  they  did  for  the  improvement  of 
swine  in  England,  is  the  China.  The  first  introduction  of  this 
breed  in  Ohio  was  in  1816,  by  the  Shaken*  of  Union  Village. 
They  were  called  the  "  Big  China  hogs."  They  wen-  bought 
in  Philadelphia  by  John  Wallace,  trustee  of  the  Shaker  society 
near  Lebanon.  There  wax  one  boar  and  three  sows.  One  sow 
had  some  sandy  spots  on  her.  in  which  appeared  Home  small 
black  spots.  The  boar  and  other  BOWM  were  white.  By  their 
use  on  the  mongrels  by  the  Rumtan,  By  field  and  common 
bogs,  came  the  Miami  Valley  hog.  That  this  Shaker  importa- 
tion of  Chinas  was  pure  China  Htock,  there  is  reason  to  doubt. 
Nevertheless,  they  impressed,  in  a  wonderful  degree,  their 
offspring  with  a  quicker  feeding  quality,  that  seemed  to  be 
the  leading  idea  in  the  improvement  of  that  period. 

There  are  frequent  allusions  to  China  hogs  and  their  value, 
by  writers  in  the  Genesee  Farmer,  The  Cultivator  and  Western 
Farmer,  prior  to  1842.  They  were  used  and  esteemed  in  the 
East  and  West,  and  made  their  impress  on  all  breeds  with 
which  they  were  crossed.  The  use  of  the  China  has  been  ben- 


30  SWINE    HLSBANDUY. 

eficial  in  correcting  coarseness  of  form,  in  quieting  the  restless 
disposition,  and  increasing  the  tendency  to  fatten  at  any  age, 
and  refine  the  texture  and  quality  of  flesh. 

THE  RED  HOG,  CALLED  "POLAND." 

There  was  another  element  that  we  cannot  omit,  which 
seems  not  only  to  have  been  the  very  apple  of  discord  among 
some  of  our  friends,  but  its  impress  among  the  hogs  of  Ohio 
and  the  West  is  almost  as  marked  as  that  of  the  noted  Tarn- 
worth  boar  on  English  breeds.  Their  color  and  vigorous 
growth  seemed  to  attach  themselves  most  persistently  to  their 
posterity,  and  were  potent  on  all  crosses.  Whether  they  could 
be  called  a  distinct  breed  we  will  not  here  discuss.  A*HgPl 
and  Millikin  claim  not,  but  that  one  Asher,  of  Chester,  Butler 
county,  Ohio,  a  native  of  Poland,  had  red  hogs  which  he 
claimed  to  have  imported  from  England,  there  is  strong  proof. 
There  was  frequent  allusion  to  them  in  the  writings  of  that 
day,  and  to  the  name  Poland  given  to  hogs  of  their  type  after 
1888.  We  have  a  letter  from  B.  G.  Schenck,  of  Franklin, 
Ohio,  in  answer  to  inquiry  by  L.  N.  Bon  ham.  He  says:  "I 
remember  once  to  have  K|K>ken  of  the  red  hogs  and  pigs  I  saw 
when  a  boy,  at  an  old  Polander's  down  near  Chester.  I  re- 
member to  have  gone  with  my  father  to  this  Pole's  to  see  those 
red  pigs,  and  I  remember  now  just  how  they  looked.  They 
were  of  a  bright,  sandy  color,  with  small  black  specks  all  over 
them.  They  resembled,  in  make,  according  to  my  recollection 
of  the  pigs  I  saw  there,  and  those  raised  from  the  pair  my 
father  bought  at  that  time,  the  Berkshire  of  to-day,  except 
that  they  were  a  little  deeper  in  the  body,  had  a  flatter  rib, 
and  were  shorter  in  the  legs.  I  remember  the  Polander  telling 
my  father  that  they  were  the  sandy  Berkshires,  of  England, 
and  that  he  had  imported  them.  I  remember  the  old  ini]x>rted 
sow  and  a  yearling  sow,  a  pig  of  hers.  They  both  had  litters 
of  pigs  at  the  time.  My  father  crossed  them  with  his  hogs, 
and  for  years  after  there  would  be  a  pig  with  the  features  of 
the  Polander's  hogs.  I  still  think  that  the  name  Poland,  in 
our  Poland-China  hogs,  came  from  this  old  Polander." 

Here  we  have  an  element  that  has  made  a  lasting  impression 
on  the  hogs  of  the  valley  and  the  whole  country.  The  sandy 
or  reddish  color  is  one  that  has  characterized  so  many  of  the 
breeds  in  their  early  history,  that  it  has  wonderful  staying 
qualities.  It  never  has  been  a  jxipular  color.  The  early  Eng- 
lish breeders  did  not  fancy  or  seek  to  perpetuate  it,  nor  have 


THE  POLAND-CHINAS.  31 

American  breeders.  Yet  in  the  early  history  of  swine  in 
America,  when  color  counted  but  little  and  growth  and  feed- 
ing qualities  much,  the  law  of  selection  did  not  then  exclude 
animals  of  sandy  markings  as  it  now  does,  since  fashion 
makes  the  old  markings  unfashionable. 

That  the  law  of  selection,  regardless  of  color,  produces  prof- 
i table  hogs,  we  know.  The  record  of  weights  made  in  fatten- 
ing establishments  of  an  earlier  day  will  make  this  clear.  The 
books  of  Wren  &  Schaffer,  of  Middletown,  Ohio,  show  that 
they  packed,  in  1879,  a  lot  of  thirty-eight  Poland-China  hogs, 
averaging  six  hundred  and  thirteen  pounds  gross  at  twenty- 
one  months  old,  all  fattened  by  one  man  in  Butler  county. 
From  a  table  at  hand  we  quote  gross  weights  of  six  hundred 
and  twenty-five  raised  in  Butler  county,  Ohio,  and  sold  to 
packers  in  1870 : 

one  lot  of  80  averaged 674  pounds. 

<>n<-  jot  of  40  averaged 516  pounds. 

out-  lot  of  38  averaged 570  pounds. 

our  lot  of  48  averaged 613  pounds. 

One  lot  of  42  averaged 517  pounds. 

One  lot  of  40  averaged 504  pounds. 

()n<-  lot  of  20  averaged 501  pounds. 

One  lot  of  45  averaged 636  pounds. 

One  lot  of  75  averaged 493  pounds. 

One  lot  of  CO  averaged 490  pounds. 

One  lot  of  40  averaged 713  pounds. 

One  lot  of  12  averaged 773  pounds. 

To  show  that  this  breed  had,  in  1870,  attained  unsurpassed 
excellence  in  their  readiness  to  fatten  at  any  age,  and  their 
rapid  growth,  we  quote  the  weights  of  two  lots  of  pigs  fat- 
tened when  eleven  months  old : 

One  lot  of  30  averaged,  gross 384  pounds. 

One  lot  of  10  averaged,  gross 410  pounds. 

One  lot  of  38,  older,  averaged,  net 528.8U  pounds. 

One  lot  of  2,  older,  averaged,  gross 719  pounds. 

The  net  average  of  this  last  forty  pigs  was  five  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  pounds. 

Such  a  record  shows  not  only  skillful  breeding,  but  rare 
skill  in  handling  and  feeding.  It  tells,  too,  of  the  superior 
natural  advantages  of  a  regiota  where  such  a  breed  should  be 
originated  and  produced  by  an  intelligent  and  persistent 
application  of  the  law  of  selection. 


32  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

Discussions  by  the  Press  and  by  individuals  for  nearly 
a  half  century,  have  been  the  cause  of  searching  and 
thorough  investigation  into  the  matters  connected  with 
their  early  history,  the  time  and  manner  in  which  tlui 
first  crosses  were  made,  and  upon  what  foundation, 
together  with  the  later  crosses  and  manner  of  breeding, 
which  combine  to  make  them  the  leading  and  favorite 
breed  in  many  sections  famous  for  the  value,  size,  and 
quality  of  their  hogs.  Owing  to  the  great  interest  man- 
ifested on  these  points,  we  have  given  them  much  care- 
ful study  and  examination,  for  the  purpose  of  getting 
at  the  bottom  facts  for  the  public  benefit ;  but  it  seems 
well-nigh  impossible  to  harmonize  the  conflicting  state*  ] 
ments  of  those  who  ought  to  be  best  informed,  or 
to  expect  the  champions  of  the  various  views  to  be 
pleased  with  such  conclusions  as  do  not  accord  with 
their  own. 

On  many  points,  all  who  have  studied  the  question 
closely  agree,  and  on  others  (of  perhaps  minor  impor- 
tance to  the  public)  some  of  the  disputants  are  as  far 
apart  as  the  poles,  but  we  believe  none  dispute  that  the 
main  crosses  towards  its  formation  as  a  definite  and  dis- 
tinct breed  were  made  in  that  part  of  southwestern 
Ohio  lying  between  the  Big  Miami  and  Little  Miami 
rivers,  mainly  the  counties  of  Butler  and  Warren,  dur- 
ing the  years  from  1835  to  1840.  It  is  also  generally 
conceded  that  the  groundwork  was  stock  locally  known 
as  "Warren  County"  hogs,  which  were  the  result  of 
crossing  together  the  Berkshire,  "Byfield,"  the  "Rus- 
sia," the  "Big  China,"  and  perhaps  the  "Bedford" 
breeds,  all  large,  coarse  hogs  and  slow  to  grow  and  fat- 
ten, except  the  "Big  Chinas,"  which  possessed  the  very 
opposite  qualities. 

Hon.  John  M.  Millikin,  who  lived  in  Butler  county 
well-nigh  seventy  years,  forty-five  of  which  he  was  a 
farmer,  paid  special  attention  to  searching  out  the  his- 


THE   POLAND-CHINA 


tory  of  this  breed,  its  material  and  makers,  and  his 
statement  to  the  author  was  this  : 

"The  truth  is,  no  one  man  can  say  he  had  more  to  do 
in  the  formation  of  this  breed  than  another.  It  was  the 
n-sult  of  the  labors  of  many.  It  grew  out  of  the  intro- 
duction of  the  China  hogs  by  the  Shakers  of  Union 
Village,  the  crossing  with  the  Russia  and  Byfield,  and 
the  subsequent  crossing  with  the  Berkshires,  and  then 
with  the  Irish  Graziers.  After  1841,  or  1842,  these 
breeds  ceased  to  exist  in  either  Butler  or  Warren  coun- 
ties, and  (in  1877)  have  had  nothing  to  do  whatever 
with  this  breed  for  the  last  thirty-four  years." 

Controversies  as  to  the  precise  crosses,  and  by  whom 
and  under  what  particular  circumstances  they  were 
made  fifty  years  ago,  to  form  the  breed  now  known  as 
Poland-Chinas,  may  interest  a  few  ;  but  what  is  vastly 
more  important  to  millions  of  people,  is  the  fact  that 
there  has  been  produced  a  race  of  swine,  now  bearing 
thtit  name,  that  very  many  severely  practical  and  intelli- 
gent men  consider  the  best  pork-packing  machines 
known,  —  in  fact,  nearer  what  the  farmers  of  the  great 
central,  corn-producing  West  need,  than  any  other  sin- 
gle breed  in  existence. 

Their  size,  color,  hardiness,  docility  and  good  feeding 
qualities  make  them  favorites  when  purely  bred,  and 
where  more  fineness  of  contour,  quicker  maturity,  and 
a  little  less  size  is  demanded,  we  are  satisfied  the  sows 
bred  to  Berkshire  boars  produce  the  best  feeding  and 
farm  hogs  in  the  world. 


34  SW1NB   IIUSBJLNDBT. 

CHAPTER     IV. 
THE    CHESTER   WHITES. 

Knowing  Mr.  Thomas  Wood,  of  Chester  county,  ]' 
sylvania,  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  reliable  breed- 
ers of  the  Chester  Whites,  and  familiar  with  them  from 
the  beginning,  we  applied  to  him  as  a  source  of  ruliuMo 
information  as  to  their  origin,  early  history,  breeding,  etc. 

He  writes  :  "  The  Chester  County  White  hog  is  a  nat  i  \  t> 
of  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  where  the  breed  origi- 
nated. The  first  impulse  to  the  improvement  of  swine  in 
this  county  was  induced  by  the  introduction  of  a  pair  of 
yery  fine  white  pigs,  brought  from  Bedfordshire,  Eng- 
land, by  Captain  James  Jeffries,  of  this  county,  and  put 
upon  his  farm  on  the  Brandy  wine  Creek,  near  West  < 
ter,  the  county  seat,  in  the  year  1818.  Some  of  our  nmiv 
enterprising  farmers,  seeing  these  finely-bred  pigs,  were 
induced  to  commence  an  improvement  of  their  swine  by 
a  cross  of  these,  their  progeny,  and  others  of  the  best 
hogs  of  the  county,  and  by  continuing  a  careful  selection 
and  judicious  crossing  for  many  years,  have  produced  the 
Chester  White  of  to-day,  a  most  desirable,  well-formed, 
good-sized,  easily-fattened,  and  perhaps  the  best  bacon 
hog  for  the  general  farmer  in  this  or  any  other  country. 

"  I  have  been  paying  considerable  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  Chester  Whites  for  over  forty  years, 
and  was  among  the  first  to  disseminate  the  stock  over  the 
United  States.  I  have  shown  them  at  numerous  agricul- 
tural exhibitions  ;  at  the  exhibition  of  the  United  States 
Agricultural  Society,  held  at  Philadelphia,  in  1856,  I  re- 
ceived the  Society's  diploma  for  the  best  pigs ;  at  the 
United  States  Agricultural  Fair,  held  at  Richmond,  Va., 
in  1858,  I  exhibited  Chester  Whites,  and  they  took  all 
the  highest  prizes  offered  by  the  Society  ;  I  also  exhibited 


THE   CHESTER    WHITES. 


35 


36  8W1NE    IirSBANDRT. 

them  at  the  joint  fair  of  the  States  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  held  at  Petersburg,  taking  not  only  the 
highest  premium  awarded,  but  also  the  sweepstakes  pre- 
mium for  the  best  sow,  with  considerable  competition 
with  other  breeds  at  all  these  exhibitions. 

"  The  Chester  Whites  have  been  successfully  exhibited 
at  several  fairs  of  the  Maryland  Agricultural  Sot-it -t\  ; 
also  at  nearly  every  fair  held  by  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Society,  as  well  as  by  many  County  Societies,  in  con>]>»  ti- 
tion  with  most  other  breeds,  while  in  many  other  St.-itt •< 
they  have  successfully  competed  with  all  the  foreign  and 
home-made  breeds. 

"Some  thirty  years  ago,  the  Berkshires  were  introduced 
into  Chester  county,  where  some  of  our  farmers  tried 
and  kept  them  very  nice,  and  exhibited  them  at  the  agri- 
cultural fairs ;  but  they  did  not  seem  to  take  well  with 
our  farmers  at  that  time,  and  were  displaced  by  Chesters. 

"A  few  years  later  the  little  Suffolks,  that  were  making 
quite  a  stir  in  the  hog  line  in  New  England,  were  intro- 
duced into  our  county,  and  afterwards  the  Essex,  but 
neither  breed  flourished  here,  and  the  Chcsters  quietly 
superseded  them. 

"  I  tried  them  all,  but  found  none  of  them  superior  to 
our  own  breed.  Some  of  the  Chesters  had  been  crossed 
with  the  black  breeds,  and  it  took  our  farmers  eight  or 
ten  years  to  get  rid  of  their  spotted  hogs,  which  was  finally 
pretty  well  accomplished,  and  the  Chesters  again  held 
sway  over  the  county,  and  hundreds  and  thousands  of 
them  were  shipped  to  different  parts  of  the  United  States, 
Canada,  and  the  West  Indies.  During  this  time,  many 
unprincipled  parties  shipped  any  kind  of  a  white  pig  they 
could  pick  up  in  the  county,  which  they  would  call  genu- 
ine Chesters  ;  this  lowered  the  popularity  of  the  breed 
wherever  such  pigs  were  sent.  This  caused  a  great  falling 
off  in  the  demand  for  our  pigs,  and  again  the  Berkshires 
were  introduced  into  this  and  adjoining  counties,  they 


THE   CHESTER   WHITES.  37 

having,  in  the  thirty  years  since  their  first  introduction, 
been  much  improved,  and  being  popular  abroad,  some  of 
our  swine  breeders  procured  them  to  breed  for  shipping 
purposes,  and,  as  every  generation  must  try  the  different 
kinds  of  stock  for  themselves,  many  farmers  bought  the 
Berk  shires  to  see  if  they  possessed  any  advantages  over 
the  Chester  Whites,  it  being  said  that  their  hams  were 
not  so  fat,  and  would  sell  more  readily  in  market.  After 
many  years  of  trial,  many  farmers  said  that  the  white 
hogs  were  best  adapted  to  their  wants. 

"  The  Yorkshires  have  also  been  recently  introduced 
(in  their  greatly  improved  condition)  into  our  county, 
and  are  quite  as  popular  as  the  Berkshire. 

"  I  will  here  give  the  result  of  my  experience  with  the 
Chesters  and  Berkshires  :  I  procured  from  a  noted  breed- 
er in  a  neighboring  State,  two  Berkshire  pigs  about  ten 
weeks  old,  and  with  them,  in  a  pen,  I  put  two  Chester 
Whites,  from  a  litter  of  our  own,  after  several  of  the 
larger  ones  had  been  sold.  They  were  a  few  days  younger 
than  the  Berkshires,  which  were  masters  at  the  trough, 
and  they  remained  so,  knocking  the  Chesters  about  as 
though  the  whites  had  no  rights  the  blacks  were  bound 
to  respect.  After  feeding  the  four  together  for  seven  01 
eight  months,  by  which  time  the  Chesters  weighed  sev- 
enty-five pounds,  each,  heavier  than  the  Berkshires,  we 
killed  and  salted  them  for  our  own  use,  intending  to  find 
out  which  made  the  best  bacon,  and  we  found  the  Berk- 
shire hams  gave  more  lean  meat,  though  somewhat  dry 
and  hard,  while  that  from  the  Chesters  appeared  to  bo 
more  soft  and  juicy,  and  was  considered  much  the  best 
for  our  own  eating  ;  but  those  who  do  not  like  the  fat, 
juicy  ham,  would  prefer  the  Berkshire,  which  is  also  nice. 

"  It  might  seem  that  enough  had  been  written  and 
published  in  our  agricultural  papers  about  the  pure  bred 
hogs,  when  we  evidently  have  no  such,  and  the  further 
we  have  got  from  the  old  English  and  China  type,  the 


38  BWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

better  the  hog.  The  Chester  White,  made  in  Chester 
county,  Pcnn.;  the  Poland-China,  made  in  Butler  enmi- 
ty, Ohio,  lay  no  claim  to  any  infusion  of  foreign  blood, 
and  are  two  of  the  best  breeds  of  hogs  in  the  United 
States.  The  black  hog,  with  white  feet  and  a  white  strip 
in  its  face,  now  called  the  Berkshire,  and  the  white  hog, 
with  thin,  curled  hair,  short  head  and  very  crooked  face, 
called  Yorkshires,  are  both  very  well  made  and  good 
hogs.  The  Chester  White  breed  is  now  the  longest  es- 
tablished, unmixed  with  foreign  crosses,  of  any  bread 
with  which  I  am  acquainted,  and  therefore  comes  nearest 
a  pure  bred  hog  at  the  present  time. 

"  Some  object  to  them,  as  being  too  large  for  the  pork- 
packers  :  this  I  cannot  look  upon  as  an  objection,  as  the 
Chestcrs  will  fatten  readily  at  any  age,  and  can  furnish 
any  weights  the  packers  may  desire  (from  200  to  300  Ibs.) 

"I  think  they  would  be  more  profitable  than  any  small 
breed,  which  has  to  be  kept  over  winter  to  attain  the  de- 
sired weight,  as  Chesters,  pigged  in  the  spring,  will 
readily  attain  the  desired  weights  by  killing-time  in  the 
following  fall  or  winter,  and  by  keeping  them  longer  they 
can  be  grown  to  weigh  600,  800,  or  even  1,000  pounds. 
A  Chester  White  exhibited  at  the  Exposition  in  Philadel- 
phia was  said  to  weigh  upwards  of  1,300  Ibs.  live  weight. 

"Wo  seldom  have  fatal  diseases  among  our  hogs  ;  many 
of  the  diseases  of  swine,  as  of  the  sheep,  enumerated  by 
the  English,  I  think  never  occur  in  this  country.  A£  to 
the  Chester  Whites  being  exempt  from  the  attacks  of 
' cholera,' Thomas  Miner,  of  Edinburgh,  Indiana,  stated 
to  me  some  years  ago  that  all  his*  hogs,  seventy  in  num- 
ber, were  attacked  with  cholera,  and  the  only  pig  in  the 
whole  herd  that  recovered  was  a  Chester  sow,  the  only 
one  he  had.  I  do  not  recollect  ever  hearing  of  a  Chester 
dying  with  the  cholera,  yet  I  see  no  reason  why  they 
should  be  exempt.  I  think  we  have  never  had  any  hog 
cholera  in  eastern  Pennsylvania,  except  in  a  few  instances, 


111K    (HESTER    WHITES. 


where  pigs  were  shipped  from  the  West  for  sale  to  our 
dairies." 

We  have  said  that  the  Essex  were  essentially  the  same 
kind  of  hogs  as  the  Suffolks,  except  in  color  and  the  qual- 
ity of  their  skins  :  The  best  of  the  Chester  Whites  stand 
in  about  the  same  relation  to  the  Poland-Chinas,  for  if  a 
Chester  was  partially  black,  he  would  easily  be  mistaken 
for  a  Poland-China,  and  a  strictly  white  Poland-China 
cnuld  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  a  Chester  White. 

With  many  persons  who  suppose  they  have  had  the 
Clusters  in  their  best  estate,  there  is  much  prejudice 
against  the  breed,  but,  in  many  cases,  we  think  the  Ches- 
ters  receive  the  harshest  criticisms  from  parties  who  never 
owned  one  purely  bred,  and,  in  all  probability,  do  not 
know  what  they  are,  or  how  they  should  look.  Where 
the  best  specimens  have  been  handled  with  the  same  care, 
and  the  same  judgment  used  in  mating,  breeding,  and 
feeding,  that  is  bestowed  on  other  well-bred,  well-fed  ani- 
mals, they  have  been  reasonably  satisfactory,  and  have 
justly  earnest  advocates  and  admirers. 

The  occasion  of  the  bitterness  toward  so  many  hogs  that 
have  been  called  Chester  Whites,  is  that  their  popularity, 
and  the  consequent  demand  increased,  while  they  were 
comparatively  few  in  numbers,  faster  than  the  supply, 
which  stimulated  many  unprincipled  parties  in  eastern 
Pennsylvania  to  engage  in  advertising  and  shipping  any 
white  pigs  they  could  obtain,  regardless  of  their  charac- 
ter or  breeding,  and  thousands  of  innocent  purchasers  of 
these  mongrel  pigs  supposed  they  had  pure  Cheaters,  and 
the  subsequent  failures  with  them  caused  no  little  loss, 
mortification,  and  deep-seated  disgust  with  the  very  name. 
One  firm  alone,  that  peril aps  raised  some  of  their  pigs, 
publicly  proclaimed  that  they  had  shipped  annually,  for 
three  or  four  years  prior  to  1870,  from  2,500  to  2,900 
pigs,  and  the  advertisements  of  all  such  parties  intimated, 


40  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

indirectly,   that  their  ability  to  fill  orders  for  ch- 
selected  pigs  was  unlimited. 

A  gentleman  residing  in  Chester  county,  gave  the  New 
York  Farmers*  Club  some  correct  ideas  as  to  the  way  the 
business  was  conducted,  as  follows  : 

"  I  live  in  Chester  county,  and  know  something  of  the  operators 
in  this  famous  breed  of  pigs;  know  something  of  their  business, 
xtent,  and  their  ability  to  meet  the  demand  with  pure  Chester 
Whites— pigs  pure  enough  to  reproduce  themselves.  There  are, 
no  doubt,  a  great  many  breeders  who  keep  the  stock  unmixed.  Imt 
if  you  knew  the  enormous  demand  from  abroad,  independent  of 
the  local  wants,  you  would  sec  how  little  likelihood  there  is  of 
meeting  it  with  pure  stock.  The  consequence  is,  every  nook  and 
corner  is  scoured  for  pigs— pigs  that  are  not  black,  that,  is  all  that 
is  required. 

"  Drovers,  hucksters,  and  almost  every  other  itinerant,  are  on 
the  lookout  for  pigs,  until  they  have  tripled  in  price  from  what 
they  were  a  few  years  ago. 

"  Last  fall,  a  neighbor  had  several  litters  of  very  ordinary  pigs, 
which  a  farmer  engaged  at  a  very  young  age,  to  make  sure  of  them; 
but  a  hog-dealer — as  they  are  called— came  around  in  a  few  days, 
bid  higher,  and  took  the  most  of  the  lot. 

"  Another  neighbor  procured  a  pair  of  pigs  from  one  of  the 
breeders  we  have  in  the  county,  and  the  first  litter  he  raiwd  from 
them  were  nearly  all  more  or  less  spotted  with  black,  thus  showing 
unmistakably  bad  blood." 

When  the  reaction  following  this  set  in,  it  was,  of 
course,  severe.  The  graceless  scamps  who  followed  this 
business,  have  given  the  Chester  Whites  a  much  worse 
reputation  than  they  deserve,  and  the  question  as  to 
whether  the  true  Chester  White  is  an  established  breed, 
is  not  worth  discussing  with  those  who  really  know  them. 

They  are  appropriately  classed  with  the  large  breeds, 
growing,  if  kept,  to  almost  any  size,  and  hold  their  white 
color  perfectly  under  all  circumstances.  Docility  and 
cleanliness  are  marked  characteristics  with  them,  and  the 
sows  make  an  excellent  foundation  upon  which  to  cross 
boars  of  any  of  the  more  refined  breeds,  the  offspring  in- 


THE  CHESTER   WHITES.  41 

hcriting  size  from  the  sow,  and  early  maturity  and  fine 
fi-« ding  quality  from  the  boar. 

The  tendency  of  late  years  has  been  to  reduce  the 
Chester's  coarseness  of  bone,  head,  ears  and  hair,  and  it 
is  a  marked  improvement.*  Breeders  in  Ohio  and  else- 
\vli«-R.  have  claimed  to  make  variations  in  the  types 
reared  by  them  during  several  generations  of  the  stock, 
entitling  it  to  designation  and  registry  in  a  separate  rec- 
<>nl  as  "Improved"  Chester  Whites,  but  whether  the 
"improvement"  over  the  best  of  the  Chester  county 
stock,  as  bred  from  1805  to  1880,  is  a  material  one,  is 
an  open  question. 

Taking  the  specimens  of  the  breed  shown  at  the  Co- 
lumbian Exposition  in  1893  as  representing  its  best, 
there  was  little  to  indicate  that  the  Chester  Whites,  at 
that  time,  were  any  improvement  on  their  ancestry  of 
twenty-five  years  before,  and  the  contrast  they  presented, 
alongside  many  of  other  breeds,  could  scarcely  impress 
the  unbiased  observer  as  strikingly  favorable. 

Where  farmers  have  large  Chester  sows  that  are  too 
coarse,  a  cross  with  a  good  Suffolk  boar  will  give  pigs 
with  fine  points  and  most  excellent  feeding  qualities, 
fattening  readily  from  the  time  they  are  weaned. 

We  have  had  considerable  experience  with  the  Ches- 
ters,  perhaps  as  good  as  Chester  county  afforded,  and 
their  merits  are  many,  but  they  were  discarded,  with 
other  white  breeds,  for  their  one  failing  in  the  Western 
climate  and  under  Western  treatment,  viz.,  liability  to 
skin  diseases,  especially  mange.  Harsh  treatment  and 
exposure  tell  severely  against  the  hardiest  white  hogs, 
but  we  believe  judicious  management  and  breedtng  will 
yet  do  much  to  rid  them  of  this  apparent  tenderness. 

*The  heavy  lopped  ears,  coarse  heads,  long,  coarse  tails  and  hair 
are  much  less  characteristic  of  the  breed  now  than  they  were  in  its 
earlier  days,  while  their  coals  are  of  silvery  white  hair  of  reasonable 
fineness. 


42  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

The  National  Convention  adopted  the  following  as  thrir 
description  of  the 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND    MARKINGS  OF    CHESTER  WHITES. 

"Head  short,  broad  between  the  eyes;  ears  thin,  pro- 
jecting forward  and  lap  at  the  point ;  neck  short  and 
thick  ;  jowl  large  ;  body  lengthy  and  deep,  broad  on  back  ; 
hams  full  and  deep ;  legs  short,  and  well  set  under  for 
bearing  the  weight ;  coating  thinnish  white,  straight, 
and  if  a  little  wavy  not  objectionable ;  small  tail,  and  no 
bristles." 


CHAPTER    V. 
THE    BERKSHIRE^ 

For  ten  years  subsequent  to  1831  there  raged  in  the 
United  States  what  might  appropriately  be  called  "  the 
Berkshire  fever,"  and  mainly  from  the  efforts  of  those 
interested  in  their  importation,  and  sale  at  fancy  prices, 
the' breed  became  notorious,  if  not  popular.  Many  sub- 
stantial farmers,  -and  others,  invested  in  them  largely, 
and  no  small  efforts  were  made  to  sustain  the  mushrjom 
reputation  that  speculators  had  made  for  them,  but  while 
they  were,  even  at  that  time,  hogs  of  excellent  breeding 
and  truly  valuable,  the  careless,  neglectful  systems  then 
in  vogue  with  too  many  farmers,  were  not  adapted  to 
maintaining  the  good  qualities  given  the  breed  by  English 
breeding  and  feeding,  and  deterioration  followed.  Fail- 
ing to  realize  the  expectations  of  those  who  purchased 
them,  a  reaction  set  in,  and  breeders  became  disgusted 
with,  and  so  prejudiced  against,  the  stock  and  its  very 
name,  that  they  would  afterwards  scarcely  accept  of  a 
Berkshire  as  a  present. 

Much  of  the  prejudice  then  engendered  only  ceased 


THE   BERKSHIRES, 


43 


"UNIVERSITY 


44  8WINK    III  SBANDRY. 

with  its  generation,  and  perliaps  but  little  or  none  of  it 
exists  at  the  present  time. 

Since  about  1865,  new  importations,  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  the  improved  Berkshires  that  Great  Britain  could 
produce,  have  been  made,  and  the  stock  has  been  wid<  ly 
disseminated  ;  being  now  thoroughly  known  and  appre* 
ciated,  it  probably  stands  second  to  none  in  the  estima- 
tion of  intelligent  pork-producers  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canadas. 

While  the  Berkshires  of  the  present  time  are  probably 
much  improved  over  those  of  forty  yean  ago,  the  spirit  of 
improvement  is  still  abroad,  and  the  standard  of  perfec- 
tion is  placed  high. 

Prominent  among  the  good  qualities  that  servo  to 
make  them  favorites  are  : 

1st. — Great  muscular  power  and  vitality,  which  render 
them  less  liable  to  disease  than  many  other  breeds. 

2d. — Activity,  combined  with  strong  digestive  ffi4  as- 
similating powers  ;  hence  they  return  a  maximum  amount 
of  flesh  and  fat  for  the  food  consumed. 

3d. — The  sows  are  unequalled  for  prolificacy,  and  as 
careful  nurses  and  good  sticklers, 

4/A.—  The  pigs  are  strong,  smart,  and  active  at  birth, 
and  consequently  less  liable  to  mishaps. 

5M. — They  can  be  fattened  for  market  at  any  time, 
while  they  may  be  fed  to  any  reasonable  weight  desired. 

C/7*. — Their  flesh  is  the  highest  quality  of  pork. 

7M. — Power  of  the  boar  to  transmit  the  valuable  qual- 
ities of  the  breed  to  its  progeny,  when  used  as  a  cross.  ' 

8/7*. — Their  unsurpassed  uniformity  in  color,  marking, 
and  quality. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  hogs  are  nearer  thoroughbred,  in 
its  best  sense,  or  more  certain  to  reproduce  themselves 
with  fidelity  than  the  improved  Berkshires.  Crossed  with 
Poland-Chinas  they  make  the  best  feeding  hogs  possible — 
in  fact,  there  is  scarcely  a  medium  or  large  breed  upon 


THE   BERKSHIRES.  45 

which  they  cannot  be  crossed  with  advantage,  owing  to 
their  great  vigor  and  hardiness. 

In  our  own  breeding  and  feeding  operations,  no  breed 
has  been  found  so  eminently  satisfactory  as  the  best  Berk- 
shires,  and  we  breed  them  pure  in  considerable  numbers 
for  feeding  purposes,  having  years  ago  discontinued  the 
raising  of  any  others. 

Their  reasonable  size,  quick  growth,  easy  fattening,  do- 
cility, uniformity,  and  hardiness  captivated  us,  and  every 
day's  experience  but  adds  to  our  admiration  of  them. 

The  pigs,  even  when  coming  in  the  most  unfavorable 
seasons,  have  a  tenacity  of  hold  on  life  that  is  truly  won- 
derful. 

Many  of  the  meanest  hogs  and  those  of  the  worst  dis- 
position that  we  have  known  were  called  Berkshires,  but 
tlu-v  sustained  about  the  same  relation  to  the  true  sort. 
that  the  propagators  of  them  did  to  intelligent  farmers 
ami  breeders. 

The  Berkshires  having  become  so  numerous,  and  their 
excellence  so  generally  recognized,  the  friends  of  the 
breed  organized  in  March,  1875,  at  Springfield,  Illinois, 
the  "American  Berkshire  Association,"  having  for  its 
object  the  "collection,  preservation,  and  dissemination 
of  reliable  information  oa  the  origin,  breeding,  and  man- 
agement of  Berkshire  swine,  and  the  publication  of  a 
Herd  Book,  or  Record  of  Berkshire  pedigrees." 

One  of  the  first  steps  of  the  Association  was  to  offer  a 
premium  of  $100  for  the  best  approved  orignal  essay  on 
the  origin  and  management  of  Berkshires.  The  premi- 
um was  awarded  to  A.  B.  Allen,  Esq.,  of  New  York, 
the  historical  and  descriptive  portions  of  whose  essay  are 
presented  in  subsequent  pages. 

The  entire  essay  appears  in  Vol.  I  of  the  "  American 
Berkshire  Record,"  and  we  are  safe  in  saying  that  the 
subject  has  not,  in  any  other  published  paper,  been 
treated  by  any  one  so  thoroughly  familiar  with  it  as  Mr. 


46  8 WINK    HUSBANDRY. 

Allen,  and  wo  give  a  considerable  portion  of  it  here  in 
lieu  of  any  attempt  to  treat  the  subject  ourselves. 

Mr.  Allen  prepared  the  report  on  Berkshires,  as  adopt- 
ed by  the  "  Swine  Breeders'  Convention  ; "  but  we  omit 
it,  as  the  essay  contains  the  same,  and  considerable  other 
information. 

The  Convention  agreed  upon  the  following  as  the 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND   MARKINGS   OF   BERKSHIRES. 

Color  black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail,  and 
an  occasional  splash  of  white  on  the  arm  ;  while  a  small 
spot  of  white  on  some  other  part  of  the  body  does  not 
argue  an  impurity  of  blood,  yet  it  is  to  be  discouraged 
to  the  end  that  uniformity  of  color  may  be  attained  by 
breeders  ;  white  upon  one  ear,  or  a  bronze  or  copper  spot 
on  some  part  of  the  body  argues  no  impurity,  but  nit  IK  r 
a  reappearance  of  original  colors.  Markings  of  whit< 
other  than  those  named  above  are  suspicious,  and  a  pig 
so  marked  should  be  rejected. 

Face  short,  fine,  and  well  dished,  broad  between  the 
eyes  ;  ears  generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  in- 
clining forward  with  advancing  ago,  small,  thin,  soft, 
and  showing  veins  ;  jowl  full  ;  neck  short  and  thick  ; 
shoulder  short  from  neck,  to  middling  deep  from  back 
down  ;  back  broad  and  straight,  or  a  very  little  arched  ; 
ribs — long  ribs,  woll  sprung,  giving  rotundity  of  body; 
short  ribs  of  good  length,  giving  breadth  and  levelness  of 
loins ;  hips  good  length  from  point  of  hip  to  rump ; 
hams  thick,  .round,  and  deep,  holding  their  thickness 
well  back  and  down  to  the  hocks  :  tail  fine  and  small, 
set  on  high  up  ;  legs  short  and  fine,  but  straight  and 
very  strong,  with  hoofs  erect,  legs  set  wide  apart ;  size 
medium  ;  length  medium,  extremes  are  to  be  avoided  ; 
bone  fine  and  compact ;  offal  very  light ;  hair  fine  and 
compact ;  skin  pliable. 

The  Berkshires  are  hardy,  prolific,  and  excellent  nurses; 


THE    BERKSHIKES.  47 

their  meat  is  of  superior  quality,  with  fat  and  lean  well 
mixed. 

As  showing  the  weight  that  animals  of  this  breed  will 

attain  at  an  early  age,  it  is  stated  that  J.  A.  Brown,  of 

Milton,  Illinois,  sold,  in  1873,  a  lot  of  Berkshire  pigs  of 

an  average  age  of  nine  months,  and  their  average  weight 

:;05  pounds. 

As  indicating  the  estimate  placed  on  this  breed  in  Eng- 
land, the  leading  work  of  that  country  on  swine  raising 
says  :* 

"  Among  the  black  breeds,  by  universal  consent,  the  improved 
Berkshire  hog  stands  at  the  head  of  the  list,  either  to  breed  pure, 
or  to  cross  with  inferior  breeds.  *  *  *  They  are  now  considered, 
by  Berkshire  farmers,  to  be  divided  into  a  middle  (medium  size) 
and  a  small  breed.  If  first-class,  they  should  be  well  covered  with 
long,  black,  silky  hair.  *  *  *  The  white  should  be  confined  to 
four  white  feet,  a  white  spot  between  the  eyes,  and  a  few  white 
hairs  behind  each  shoulder." 

PREMIUM  ESSAY. 

BY  A.  B  ALLEN. 

THE  ORIGINAL  BREED  OF  BERKSHIRE  SWINE 

"  Tradition,  and  the  earliest  published  accounts  of  what  has  .long 
been  particularly  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Berkshire  swine, 
represents  them,  down  to  about  a  century  since,  as  among  the 
largest  breeds  of  England,  weighing,  full  grown,  from  700  to  1,000 
pounds,  or  more.  The  'Complete  Grazier'  describes  one,  in 
1807,  as  weighing  113  stone,  (904  Ibs.)  This  was  exhibited,  with 
others,  by  Sir  William  Curtis,  at  the  cattle  show  of  Lord  Somer- 
ville,  in  that  year.  Johnson,  in  his  *  Farmers'  Encyclopaedia,' 
London,  1842,  says  that  they  weighed  at  that  time  from  50  to  100 
stone  (400  to  800  Ibs.  The  latter  of  these,  doubtless,  were  of  the 
improved  breed. 

"  Originally,  they  were  represented  as  being  generally  of  a  buff, 
sandy,  or  reddish-brown  color,  spotted  with  black,  occasionally 
tawny  or  white  spotted  in  the  same  manner.  They  were  coarse  in 
the  bone ;  head  rather  large,  with  heavy  flop  ears ;  broad  on  the 


*  Sidney's  "  Youatt  on  the  Pig,"  London,  1860. 


48  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

back;  deep  in  the  chest;  flat-sided,  and  long  in  the  body ;  thick 
and  heavy  in  both  shoulders  and  hams;  well  letdown  in  tin-  twist; 
bristles  and  long  curly  hair,  with  rather  short,  strong  legs.  Tln-ir 
meat  was  better  marbled  than  that  of  any  other  bleed  of  swine  in 
Great  Britain— that  is,  had  a  greater  proportion  of  lean  freely  in- 
termixed with  fine  streaks  of  fat,  which  makes  it  much  more 
tender  and  juicy  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  They  were  conse- 
quently, from  time  immemorial,  preferred  to  all  other  swine  there, 
for  choice  hams,  shoulders,  and  bacon.  They  were  slow  feeders, 
and  did  not  ordinarily  mature  till  two  and  a  half  to  three  years  old. 
"  It  is  thus  that  I  find  the  Berkshire  hog  figured  and  described 
in  the  earliest  English  publications  to  which  I  have  been  able, 
thus  far,  to  obtain  access.  But  in  the  second  volume  of  the  mag- 
nificent folio  edition,  illustrated  with  colored  plates,  now  lying 
before  me,  of  'The  Breeds  of  the  Domestic  Animals  of  the  Brit- 
ish Islands,'  by  Professor  David  Low,  published  in  London,  in 
1842,  is  a  portrait  of  a  Berkshire  as  I  have  described  above,  except 
being  of  rounder  body  and  somewhat  finer  in  all  his  points,  with 
ears  like  most  of  those  of  modern  breeding,  medium  in  size,  and 
erect,  instead  of  flopping.  This  portrait  is  of  a  sandy  or  reddish- 
brown  color,  spotted  with  black ;  the  feet  and  legs  for  nearly  their 
whole  length,  white,  slightly  streaked  on  the  sides  and  behind,  with 
reddish-brown.  It,  of  course,  represents  one  of  the  old  breed  con- 
siderably improved,  and  marked  as  I  occasionally  found  them  in 
all  my  visits  to  Berkshire  down  to  1867.  But  the  pigs  which  I  saw 
thus  marked  were  of  the  same  size  and  shape,  and  as  fine  in  all 
their  points,  as  a  general  run  of  the  black,  slate,  or  plum  colors  of 
the  present  day. 

"  FORMATION   OF  THE   IMPROVED    BERKSHIRE   SWINE. 

"  Tradition  tells  us  that  this  was  made  by  across  of  the  black,  or 
deep  plum-colored  Siamese  boar,  on  the  old  unimproved  Berkshire 
sows.  Other  traditions  assert  that  the  black  and  white  spotted, 
and  even  pure  white  Chinese  boar  was  also  sparingly  used  to  assist 
in  the  same  purpose.  I  can  well  believe  this ;  for  I  often  saw 
swine  in  Berkshire  spotted,  about  half  and  half  black  and  white, 
in  addition  to  the  reddish -brown,  or  buff  and  black,  and  so  on  al- 
most up  to  the  pure  plum  color  or  black.  The  produce  of  the 
above  cross  or  crosses  was  next  bred  together,  and  by  judicious 
subsequent  selections,  the  improved  breed,  as  we  now  find  it,  be- 
came, in  due  time,  fixed  and  permanent  in  all  its  desirable  points. 

"  Another  feature,  aside  from  the  half  and  half  black  and  white 
spots  hitherto  occasionally  found  to  mark  the  improved  Berkshire 


TTTE    BEKKSHIRES.  49 

swine,  which  may  be  adduced  in  support  of  the  supposition  of  a 
sparing  cross  with  the  white  and  light  spotted  Chinese,  is  the  shape 
of  the  jowls.  All  these  which  I  have  bred  in  my  piggery,  or  im- 
ported at  different  times  direct  from  China,  or  have  seen  elsewhere, 
had  much  fuller  and  fatter  jowls  than  the  Siamese.  Some  of  the 
breeders  of  England  preferred  the  fat  jowls,  because  carrying  the 
most  meat ;  others  the  leaner,  as  they  said  this  gave  their  stock  a 
finer  and  higher  bred  look  in  the  head. 

"THE  SIAMESE  SWINE. 

"  In  the  same  volume  of  Professor  Low,  which  contains  the 
Berkshire  portrait  as  described  above,  is  a  colored  plate  of  a  Siam- 
ese sow.  She  is  a  dark-slate,  varying  to  that  of  a  rich  plum  color. 
The  two  hind  feet  are  white ;  the  fore  legs  and  feet  white,  shaded 
in  front  with  plum.  The  face  is  dished ;  head  fine,  with  short  erect 
ears  ;  shoulders  and  hams  extra  large ;  back  broad,  with  a  deep, 
round,  and  longish  body.  The  sow  is  represented  with  a  slightly 
swayed  or  hollow  back,  at  which  we  need  not  wonder,  considering 
its  length,  and  that  she  has  a  litter  of  nine  great  fat  pigs  tugging 
away  at  her  dugs.  These,  Professor  Low  says,  were  got  by  a  half- 
bred  Chinese  boar,  which,  I  presume,  from  the  color  of  the  pigs, 
was  white ;  for  some  of  them  were  pure  white,  while  others  are 
mixed  with  slate,  or  plum  and  white,  and  one  is  a  buff,  with  black 
spots,  like  the  original  Berkshire. 

"  I  will  now  describe  the  Siamese  swine,  such  as  I  possessed  and 
bred  for  several  years  on  my  farm.  They  varied  in  color  from 
deep  rich  plum  to  dark-slate  and  black ;  had  two  to  three  white 
feet,  but  no  white  on  the  legs  or  other  parts  of  the  body.  The 
head  was  short  and  fine,  with  a  dished  face, and  rather  thin  jowls; 
ears  short,  slender,  and  erect ;  shoulders  and  hams  round,  smooth, 
and  extra  large  ;  back  broad  and  somewhat  arched,  except  in  sows 
heavy  with  pig  or  suckling  pigs,  but  even  then  it  was  straight 
rather  than  swayed  ;  body  of  moderate  length,  deep,  well  ribbed  up, 
and  nearly  as  round  as  a  barrel ;  chest  deep  and  broad ;  twist  well 
let  down  ;  legs  fine  and  short ;  tail  very  slender  and  well  set,  with 
a  handsome  curl  in  it  near  the  rump ;  hair  soft,  silky,  and  thin ;  no 
bristles  even  on  the  boars ;  skin  thin  and  of  a  dark  hue,  yet  when 
scalded,  scraped  white ;  flesh  firm,  sweet,  and  very  tender,  with 
less  lean  than  in  the  Berkshire.  Although  so  compact,  round  and 
smooth  in  build,  they  had  a  fine,  high-bred,  up-headed  style,  espe- 
cially in  their  walk,  which  instantly  attracted  the  attention  of  all 
who  called  to  see  them.  They  were  moderately  prolific,  and  as 
3 


50  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

hardy  as  any  other  breed  of  swine  I  ever  kept,  the  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold  never  injuring  them.  They  were  gentl<-  in  disposi- 
tion, very  quiet,  and  easily  kept,  and  would  partially  fatten  on 
good  pasture,  or  coarse,  raw  vegetables.  They  could  be  made  tit 
for  the  butcher  at  any  age ;  matured  at  12  to  15  months  old  ;  and 
when  fully  fattened,  generally  weighed  from  250  to  300  pounds, 
occasionally  going  to  350,  or  400  pounds.  They  had  very  line 
bones  and  light  offal. 

"It  was,  doubtless,  with  Siamese  boars  as  perfect  as  I  hav<  d,  - 
scribed,  that  the  cross  was  made  on  the  original  Berkshire  s<  > 
which  has  contributed  so  largely  to  the  formation  of  the  impr<> 
breed,  held  in  such  high  estimation  for  a  full  century  or  more  past 

"WHEN  WAS  THE  CROSS  FIRST  MADE? 
"  Several  aged  men  in  different  parts  of  Berkshire,  of  whom  I 
inquired  on  my  first  visit  to  England,  in  1841,  informed  me  th.it 
they  had  known  there  improved  swine  of  the  same  typ«-  a-  I  thru 
found  them,  from  earliest  childhood.  But,  the  most  particular,  and 
apparently  reliable,  account  I  was  able  to  obtain,  was  from  Mr. 
Westbrook,  of  Pinckney  Green,  Bysham.  who  told  me  that  his 
father  possessed  them  as  early  as  the  year  1780,  in  as  great  perfec- 
tion as  the  best  then  existing  in  the  country.  Thus  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  improvement  is  now  at  least  a  century  old,  and  more  prob- 
ably a  century  and  a  quarter;  for  it  would  have  taken  some  years 
back  of  1780  to  begin  a  new  breed  of  swine,  and  get  it  up  to  a 
fixed  type  at  that  period. 

"CHARACTERISTICS     OF    THE     BEST     OF     THE     IMPROVED 

BERKSHIRE  SWINE  AT  THIS  TIME. 

"  Snout  and  head  fine  and  rather  short,  but  larger  in  proportion 
to  the  body  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  and  with  a  bolder  and 
more  determined  expression  ;  face  dished  and  broad  between  the 
eyes;  jowls  full  or  thinner,  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  breeder; 
eyes  bright  and  expressive ;  ears  small,  thin,  and  upright,  or  inclin- 
ing their  points  a  little  forward ;  neck  short,  rather  full  in  tbc 
throat,  and  harmoniously  swelling  to  the  shoulders;  chest  limed 
and  deep;  back  broad  and  moderately  arched  ;  rump  nearly  level 
with  it;  well  let  down  in  the  twist;  body  of  good  length  and 
depth,  round,  with  well  sprung  ribs,  and  straight  along  the  sides 
and  under  the  belly;  shoulders,  above  ail,  in  the  boar,  extra  thick, 
yet  sloping  smoothly  to  the  body;  hams  broml,  round,  deep,  and 
so  thick  through  from  side  to  side,  particularly  in  the  sow  and  bar-  1 
row,  that,  standing  directly  behind,  except  when  pretty  fat,  tho 


THE    BEKKSHIRES.  51 

sides  of  the  body  are  scarcely  seen  between  them  and  the  shoul- 
ders ;  legs  fine,  strong,  of  moderate  length,  and  set  rather  wide 
apart;  feet  small,  with  clear,  tough  hoofs;  tail  slender  and  well 
set,  with  a  handsome  curl  near  the  rump ;  bones  fine  and  of  an 
ivory-like  grain  and  hardness ;  offal  very  light  in  comparison  to 
weight  of  carcass ;  hair  fine,  soft,  and  silky  ;  no  bristles,  even  on 
the  boar;  skin  thin  and  mellow,  with  elastic  handling  of  the  flesli 
bi-jicath  ;  quick  and  spirited  in  movement;  stylish  in  carriage,  and, 
in  the  boar,  more  especially,  bold  and  imposing  in  presence.  . 

"COLOR  AND   MARKING. 

"  Tiie  most  favorite  color  among  the  best  breeders  in  Berkshire, 
in  1841,  was  a  deep  rich  plum,  with  a  slight  flecking  on  the  body  of 
white,  or  a  little  mingling  with  it  of  buff;  a  small  blaze  in  the  face ; 
two  to  four  feet  white,  and  more  or  less  white  hair  in  the  tail. 
The  plum  color  was  preferred  to  the  black  or  slate,  because  it  car- 
ric  1  rather  higher  style  and  finer  points  with  it,  a  superior  quality 
of  flesh,  softer  hair,  and  thinner  skin. 

"  The  above  is  no  ideal  description  of  choice  improved  Berkshire 
swine,  for  I  found  several  sucli  in  traversing  the  country,  and  pur- 
(  h  isi  d  and  sent  them  home,  to  grace  my  own  piggery.  Nor,  with 
all  these  points,  were  they  lacking  in  size ;  and  to  substantiate  this 
assertion,  I  will  here  note  the  dimensions  of  one  of  those  I  im- 
port, d  at  this  time,  which  I  called  '  Windsor  Castle,'  he  having 
been  bred  and  reared  near  that  magnificent  royal  residence,  stand- 
inir  in  Berkshire. 

"As  he  lay  down  he  measured,  in  a  direct  line  along  the  side, 
from  the  tip  of  his  nose  to  the  end  of  his  rump,  six  feet  three  and 
a  half  inches.  If  measured  standing  up,  with  his  head  stooping 
towards  the  ground,  by  running  the  tape  line  from  the  tip  of  his 
nose  over  the  head  between  the  cars,  and  along  the  back  to  the 
end  of  the  rump,  as  swine  are  often  measured,  it  would  have  made 
umvanla  of  seven  feet  long ;  but  I  do  not  consider  this  a  fair  way 
of  measuring.  Hight  to  top  of  the  shoulder,  two  feet  eleven 
inches ;  hight  to  top  of  rump,  three  feet ;  girth  close  behind  the 
shoulders,  five  feet  six  inches.  He  was  in  rather  lean  condition 
when  I  measured  him,  as  I  kept  him  so  in  order  not  to  be  too 
heavy  to  serve  small  sows.  It  is  well  known  that  when  a  Berk- 
shire is  fully  fed,  in  addition  to  the  meat  on  hissides,.he  lays  two  to 
four  inches  more  on  his  back.  I  am  confident  if  '  Windsor  Castle ' 
had  been  altered  to  a  barrow,  and  fully  fattened,  he  would  then 
have  measured  three  fcot  and  two  inches  high  to  top  of  shoulder, 
and  three  feet  tnree  inches  high  io  top  of  rump;  would  hav« 


52  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

girthed  around  the  heart  seven  feet,  and  weighed,  dressed,  at  1.  i>t 
eight  hundred  pounds.  He  was  as  fine  in  hair  and  all  his  points,  and 
as  good  a  handler  as  the  choicest  of  those  of  smaller  size  ;  and  for 
a  combination  of  size,  style,  vigor,  and  noble  presence,  he  ex<« d.  <l 
anything  I  ever  saw  or  ever  expect  to  see  in  the  genus  Sus.  A 
friend  of  mine,  who  was  a  special  nice  judge  and  breed*  r  of 
horses  and  cattle,  but  who  hated  hogs,  and  would  go  as  far  to  kick 
ono  as  the  celebrated  late  John  Randolph,  of  Roanokc,  Viririiih, 
was  in  the  habit  of  declaring  he  would  go  to  kick  a  sheep;  on 
visiting  my  piggery  and  seeing  '  Windsor  Castle,'  was  so  surpri-«  1 
and  delighted  with  his  superb  appearance,  that  he  exclaimed  lie- 
was  the  only  one  of  this  sort  of  stock  he  had  ever  tooked  upon 
which  had  any  poetry  in  him,  and  that  for  his  sake  alone  he  should 
henceforth  be  reconciled  to  swine. 

"SIZE  OF  THE   IMPROVED   BERKSHIRE. 
"  I  have  heard  of  those,  both  in  England  and  America,  whose 
dead  weight,  dressed,  occasionally  exceeded  800  Ibs.;  but  at  th< 
time  I  first  visited  the  former  country,  the  gent-nil  weight,  full 
grown,  was  about  the  same  as  at  the  present  time — namely,  from 
300   to  GOO  Ibs.;  according  as  the  smaller   or  larger  pigs  \\<  r« 
selected  from  the  litters  for  fattening,  and  as  they  were  subse- 
quently fed  and  attended.     The  smaller  sizes  matured  s< 
months  the  quickest,  and  were  preferred  in  tin    market-  for  fn -h 
pork;  and  for  curing  also,  for  those  who  wero  particularly  ni< •»•  in 
the  choice  of  their  meat,  being  rather  more  tender  and  drii<  -IN 
than  the  larger  animals. 

"QUALITY  OF  MEAT. 

"  The  meat  of  the  improved  Berkshire,  like  that  of  the  unim- 
proved, abounds  in  a  much  greater  proportion  of  sweet,  tender, 
juicy  lean,  well  marbled  with  very  fine  streaks  of  fat,  than  other 
breeds  of  swine;  but  the  former  is  far  more  delicate  now,  than  the 
latter  ever  was.  This  renders  the  whole  carcass  the  most  suit- 
able of  all  for  smoking.  The  hams  and  shoulders  arc  almost 
entirely  lean,  a  thin  rim  of  fat  covering  only  the  outside. 

"MATURITY. 

"  The  improved  Berkshire  could  be  fattened  at  any  age.  Bar- 
rows matured  in  12  to  18  months,  according  as  selected  from  the 
litters,  whether  the  largest  or  smallest,  and  as  subsequently  fed 
and  treated.  It  took  boars  and  sows  reserved  for  breeding  about 
sixt months  longer  to  get  their  fullest  size  and  weight,  not  being 


THE    BERKSHIRE?*.  53 

pushed  by  high  feed  so  rapidly  as  those  destined  for  more  imme- 
diate slaughter. 

"EARLIEST   IMPORTATIONS   INTO   AMERICA. 

"  The  first  importation  into  the  country,  of  which  I  find  record, 
was  made  in  1823,  by  Mr.  John  Brentnall,  an  English  farmer  who 
settled  in  English  Neighborhood,  New  Jersey.  I  became  acquaint- 
ed with  his  sons  after  their  removal  to  Orange  county,  New  York, 
and  purchased  of  them  stock  descended  from  this  importation. 

"The  next  were  imported  in  1832,  by  Mr.  Siday  Hawes,  an 
English  farmer  who  settled  in  Albany,  New  York.  He  subse- 
quently made  other  importations,  some  of  the  descendants  of  all 
'which  I  added  to  the  stock  on  my  farm. 

"  I  have  heard  that  by  the  year  1838,  a  few  followed  into  Canada 
and  some  of  the  Western  States,  from  England.  I  bought  a  small 
lot  that  came  into  western  New  York  in  1839;  and  late  that  year, 
Messrs.  Bagg  &  Wait,  English  farmers  who  had  settled  in  Orange 
county.  New  York,  began  their  large  importation,  which  they  con- 
tinued for  several  years,  disposing  of  them  mainly  in  Kentucky, 
Tennessee,  Missouri,  and  the  South.  In  1841  I  selected  in  Berk- 
shin-,  England,  and  imported  into  New  York,  upwards  of  forty 
head  of  the  choicest  of  the  Improved  Breed  of  swine  I  could  find 
there.  The  above  have  been  followed  by  numerous  other  impor- 
tations down  to  the  present  time,  both  into  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  Those  curious  as  to  the  particulars  of  these  will  find 
them  pretty  fully  recorded  in  the  various  Agricultural  journals  of 
America.  *  *  *  * 
"  ADVANTAGE  IN  MAINTAINING  THE  BERKSHIRE  BREED. 

"  There  is  a  growing  taste  on  the  part  of  the  American  people, 
coinciding  with  that  which  has  been  cultivated  a  long  time  in 
Europe,  for  tender,  juicy,  well  marbled,  smoked  hams,  shoulders, 
and  side  pieces,  in  preference  to  very  fat,  salt  pork.  This  should 
be  encouraged,  as  the  former  are  not  only  the  more  palatable  to 
persons  in  general,  but  are  unquestionably  the  most  healthy  food. 
Considering  these  facts,  the  Berkshire,  above  all  others,  should  be 
the  favorite  swine  among  us ;  and  we  ought  to  take  all  possible 
pains  in  breeding,  rearing,  and  fattening  them  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  make  a  superior  quality  of  smoked  meat,  not  only  for  the  home, 
but  also  for  the  foreign  market. 

"Improved  methods  of  curing  and  packing  should  likewise  be 
adopted,  so  as  to  enable  us  to  get  as  high  a  price  in  the  English 
market  as  the  best  Irish  bacon  commands.  This,  I  find  often 
quoted  20  to  30  per  cent  above  American. 


54  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

"  Indian  corn,  whic!i  in  the  United  States  grows  in  such  abund- 
ance, is  undoubtedly  superior  to  anything  which  can  be  produced 
in  Ireland,  for  making  the  best  quality  of  fat  pork;  but  I  have 
heard  this  questioned  as  to  /tarns  and  bacon.  Some  feeders  contend 
that  fine,  mealy  potatoes,  cooked  and  mixed  with  barley,  oats,  pi  as, 
or  beans,  or  several  of  these,  fed  together,  will  produce  a  superior 
quality  of  .bacon.  This  is  a  matter  worth  inquiring  into,  and  I 
would  suggest  an  earnest  consideration  of  it  on  the  part  of  cur 
feeders,  and  of  those  engaged  also  in  bacon  curing  and  paekimr. 
The  Irish  have  one  advantage  over  the  Americans,  in  the  English 
market;  and  that  is  in  being  so  much  nearer  to  it,  they  can  cure 
their  bacon  and  offer  it  on  sale  in  a  fresher  and  milder  >tat«-  than 
we  are  able  to  at  present.  If  we  should,  on  tri  il,  hereafter  find 
that  it  can  be  sent  forward  at  a  profit,  in  refrigerators,  kept  down 
to  a  low  and  even  temperature,  we  could  then  probably  obtain  as 
high  prices  in  the  English  market  as  do  the  Irish,  and  thus  add 
another  desirable  item  to  the  exports  of  America." 


CHAPTER    VI. 
THE    SUFFOLK8. 

The  Suffolks  are  not  raised  pure,  or  used  as  a  cross  in 
the  principal  pork  producing  States  so  extensively  as  sev- 
eral other  breeds,  nor  are  they  so  well  known  to  a  major- 
ity of  farmers,  who  have  a  belief,  if  not  positive  knowl- 
edge, that  they  are  somewhat  delicate,  and  difficult  to 
raise. 

The  objections  to  them  are,  that  they  are  not  large 
enough,  not  satisfactory  as  breeders  and  nurses,  and  that 
their  skins  are  too  tender,  and  thinly  haired,  to  withstand 
the  exposure  to  which  the.  average  farmer's  hogs  are  sub- 
jected. 

As  to  size,  the  best  strains  of  Suffolk's  are  large  enough 
for  those  who  prefer  to  raise  hogs  of  medium  weight^ 
while  for  quietness,  and  easy  keeping  qualities,  no  breed 


THE   SUFFOLKS. 


UK 
£>r 


**> 
55 


'       ,|l||ii 


56  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

of  swine  can  excel  them,  and  to  those  who  like  pet*,  we 
would  recommend  a  cleanly-kept  Suffolk  pig  in  prefer- 
ence to  any  "poodle,"  or  other  diminutive  canine,  \\< 
ever  saw.  The  sows  are  not  so  prolific,  so  regular  as 
breeders,  nor  usually  so  good  sucklers  as  others  that  ma- 
ture less  early,  and  not  so  predisposed  to  excesshe  fatne>s 
while  young. 

Experience  with  the  Suffolks  has  convinced  many  that 
the  wind,  sun,  and  mud,  make  sad  work  with  their  tender, 
papery  skins,  and  we  have  seen  them,  when  reasonably 
well  kept,  become  chapped  and  cracked  all  over,  and  the 
smaller  pigs  so  mangy  and  sore  as  to  present  the  appear- 
ance of  a  solid  scab.  Of  course,  all  Suffolks  are  not  so 
affected,  and  we  think  that  in  many  localities,  they  are 
no  more  liable  to  suffer  in  this  way  than  hogs  of  any  other 
white  breed.  The  climate  of  some  Western  and  South- 
western States  is  unmistakably  severe  on  white  hogs,  not 
well  haired,  and  when  such  are  constantly  exposed  to 
biting  frosts,  drying  winds,  and  scorching  sun,  the  re- 
sults will,  in  most  cases,  be  anything  but  satisfactory, 
and  the  balance  will  be  found  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
ledger. 

As  now  bred,  we  cannot  look  upon  them  as  a  reason- 
ably profitable  hog  for  general  use,  but  Suffolk  boars  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage  on  many  farms  where  white 
hogs  are  preferred,  and  more  refinement  is  desired. 

The  Hon.  John  Wentworth,  of  Cook  county,  Illinois, 
having  bred  the  Suffolks,  exclusively,  for  upwards  of 
twenty  years,  owning  many  of  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  being,  after  this  long  experience,  an  enthusiastic  ad- 
mirer of  them,  we  solicited  his  estimate  of  them  as 
a  farmer's  hog,  and  he  gives  the  following  in  reply  : 

"After  trying  carefully  all  the  other  breeds,  we  give  the  prefer- 
ence  to  the  Suffolks,  and  we  think  all  others  will  who  try  them  as 
long  and  as  impartially  as  we  have.  They  make  the  most  pork  with 
the  least  food,  and  with  the  least  bone.  They  are  the  quietest 


THE    SUFFOLK8.  57 

bogs.  Give  them  enough  to  cat  and  they  will  never  leave  the 
premises.  They  lie  down  and  remain  so  until  they  want  more 
food.  They  make  the  least  offal  of  any  hogs,  and  they  root  about 
the  least,  even  when  short  of  food.  For  crossing  upon  other  hogs, 
they  have  decidedly  the  preference.  Their  cross  upon  the  largest 
white  sows  make  the  best  of  Chester  Whites.  Their  crosses  upon 
the  largest  black,  or  speckled  sows,  make  the  equals  of  Berkshires, 
Magics,  Polands,  Poland-Chinas,  Essex,  Byfield,  and  other  dark- 
colored  breeds. 

"  Indeed,  with  a  judicious  crossing  of  the  Suffolk  boar  upon  the 
ordinary  cheap  hogs  of  the  country,  you  can  closely  imitate  any 
existing  breed  of  hogs,  or  make  a  breed  of  any  form  you  please. 

"  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  Chestcrs,  Berkshires,  Magics, 
Polands,  Poland -Chinas,  Essex,  Byfields,  etc.,  etc.,  as  well  as  the 
later  formed  breeds  that  have  taken  the  most  prizes,  have  been 
manufactured  in  this  way,  from  the  Suffolks,  which  are  the 
oldest  breed  known  to  man.  Our  Suffolks  are  well  haired,  and 
run  in  our  pastures  and  barn -yards  with  our  cattle,  sheep, 
geese,  ducks,  and  chickens.  They  are  as  quiet  and  harmless  as 
any  animals  we  keep.  As  the  Suffolk  is  not  a  new  breed,  nor  re- 
cently made  up  from  unknown  crosses,  but  a  long-established  Eng- 
lish variety,  it  is  therefore  a  true  breeder.  In  them  there  is  no 
breeding  back  to  the  original  common  or  made-up  stock.  Their 
litters  are  not  part  of  one  kintl  and  part  of  another,  but  they  are 
uniformly  true  to  the  Suffolk  characteristics.  They  breed  even, 
each  pig  as  good  as  another.  *****  During  the  season  of 
grass  they  will  keep  fat  without  any  other  food.  Suffolk  pork 
costs  less  and  brings  more  money  than  any  other. 

"  Suffolks  are  the  most  popular  breed  in  England.  The  Suffolk 
attains  maturity  at  an  early  age,  and  may  always  be  in  a  condition 
to  kill  from  the  time  they  arc  a  month  old.  The  carcasses  com- 
mand a  considerable  extra  price  over  the  common  hogs  of  the 
country,  partly  on  account  of  the  greater  weight  in  proportion  to 
the  bone,  and  partly  from  the  pork  being  of  better  quality  and 
flavor.  It  derives  its  well-known  name,  "  the  English  nobleman's 
hog,"  from  the  fact  that  it  is  always  in  a  condition  to  be  killed, 
however  suddenly  company  comes. 

"  The  object  of  the  farmer  is  to  get  the  most  meat  to  the  least 
bone,  the  most  valuable  matter  in  the  hog  upon  the  same  food  to 
the  least  portion  of  the  valueless  matter.  The  Suffolk  may  be 
small,  compared  with  mammoth  breeds,  but  he  contains  as  much 
that  is  eatable  as  most  hogs  of  double  his  weight,  and  which 


5&  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

consume  four  times  his  food.  But  the  Suffolk  can  be  made  of 
superior  size  by  keeping  off  its  flesh  until  the  bones  are  properly 
developed,  and  this  development  cannot  take  place  \\lii 
young  bones  are  overladen  with  flesh,  as  those  of  over-fatted  Suf- 
folks  are  apt  to  be.  But,  owing  to  the.r  short  legs,  they 
much  more  than  is  generally  supposed.  The  Suffolks  never  r  «..t 
up  their  pastures,  nor  make  enemies  of  neighbors  by  wandering 
away  from  home,  or  by  breaking  into  their  premises.  The  Suflblks 
are  invariably  white,  except  now  and  then  one  will  have  two  or 
three  bluish  spots.  These  bluish  spots,  on  the  skin,  but  nev<  r  in 
the  hair,  unlike  those  found  upon  any  other  hogs,  indicate  purity 
of  blood  and  recent  importation. 

"  We  started  out  in  1855  with  Suffolks  descended  from  the  pens 
of  Lord  Wenlock  and  Mr.  Crisp,  of  England ;  and  we  can  safely 
say  that  we  have  bred  from  every  importation  into  the  United 
States  and  the  Provinces  since ;  and  we  intend  to  keep  up  our 
stock  by  importing  ourselves  and  availing  ourselves  of  the  impor- 
tations of  others.  We  have  sold  Suffolks  into  every  State  and 
Territory,  the  Empire  of  Japan,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Briti-h 
Provinces,  and  Mexico. 

"The  following  statement  will  explain  how  persons  who  annu- 
ally ship  large  quantities  of  hogs  to  Chicago  view  the  character- 
istics of  the  Suffolk.  When  we  first  began  to  breed  Suffolks,  and 
there  were  no  railroads  in  the  country,  hog  raisers  would  only  buy 
boars  and  raise  half-breeds  to  drive.  As  railroads  approached 
them  they  would  raise  three-quarters  blooded  to  drive.  As  rail- 
roads would  reach  them,  and  they  had  little  or  no  distance  to 
drive,  they  have  bought  Suffolk  sows  as  well  as  boars,  and  raised 
full-bloods." 

Mr.  Wentworth,  in  a  communication  to  the  " Prairie 

Farmer,"  says  : 

"  I  read,  with  great  interest,  the  report  of  the  committee  at  the 
late  Swine  Breeders'  Association  upon  the  characteristics  of  the 
Suffolk  hogs.  I  have  had  them  exclusively  for  the  past  eighteen 
years,  and  my  sales  will  average  one  hundred  every  year  for  the 
past  ten  years,  and  I  think  I  have  had  all  the  importations  repre- 
sented in  my  herd. 

"While  I  commend  the  general  correctness  of  the  report,  I 
would  state  that  there  is  one  characteristic  that  was  not  only  not 
alluded  to  by  the  committee  but  it  was  rather  repudiated  in  the 
following  words,  '  free  from  spots  or  any  other  color.*  Now 


THE   SFFFOLKS.  69 

there  is  a  liability  in  all  Suffolks  to  have  round  bluish  spots  upon 
tiidr  skins,  although  covered  with  white  bristles,  and  these  spots 
seem  to  increase  with  age.  My  present  boar  was  selected  for  me 
by  Mr.  Harison,  Secretary  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society.  When  he  arrived,  aged  about  six  months,  he  was  spot 
ten,  and  so  continued  until  about  two  years  of  age,  and  then  bluish 
spots  of  the  size  of  an  old-fashioned  silver  dollar  commenced 
growing  upon  him.  Now,  at  four  years  of  age,  he  has  about 
twenty  of  them,  although  the  bristles  covering  them  are  white. 
Of  course,  these  spots  are  exceptions,  not  one  in  ten  having  them, 
and  very  few  inside  of  one  year  old ;  yet  there  is  a  tendency  to 
them  and  no  hog  should  be  rejected  as  a  pure  Suffolk  on  their  ac- 
count. These  spots  are  easily  detected  from  black  spots. 

"  At  one  of  the  State  Fairs  at  Chicago,  one  of  my  boars  not  only 
took  the  first  premium  as  the  best  Suffolk,  but  the  sweepstake  prize 
as  the  best  boar  of  any  age  or  breed  upon  the  ground.  He  had 
several  of  these  spots  upon  him  at  that  time,  although  having  none 
until  he  was  a  year  old.  I  notice  these  bluish  spots  occasionally 
upon  hogs  at  the  stock  yards,  which  have,  in  all  respects,  charac- 
teristics of  the  Suffolks. 

"A  correspondent  of  yours,  whilst  finding  fault  with  the  size 
of  the  Suffolk,  thinks  they  are  the  best  for  crossing  upon  other 
hogs.  I  have  found  this  to  be  the  invariable  opinion  of  men  who 
want  a  breed  of  hogs  of  their  own,  independent  of  everybody  else. 
Wherever  they  start,  whatever  may  be  their  groundwork,  before 
they  get  through  making  their  new  breed  of  hogs  they  invariably 
incorporate  somewhere  a  cross  of  the  Suffolk. 

"  Your  paper  says  that  four  hundred  is  the  profitable  size  of  the 
hog.  The  Suffolks  can  easily  be  made  to  weigh  this  amount,  by 
feeding  them  lightly  until  their  legs  have  acquired  sufficient 
strength  to  support  their  weight  of  carcass.  The  inferior  weight 
attributed  so  often  to  Suffolks  arises  entirely  from  overfeeding 
thorn  when  young." 

Mr.  William.  Smith,  of  Detroit,  Michigan,  has  long 
occupied  a  front  rank  as  a  breeder  of  these  hogs,  and  is 
familiar  with  them  and  their  breeding,  in  England,  as 
well  as  America,  and  his  testimony  is  this  : 

"Having  bred  the  Suffolks  continually  for  over  forty  years,  I 
can  safely  assert  that  they  are  a  great  favorite  with  me.  I  find  in 
the  improved  breed  nothing  to  condemn,  and  everything  to  com- 
mend. They  attain  good  size  at  an  early  age,  and  their  quiet, 


(JO  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

pleasant  disposition,  clean,  snow-white  appearance,  and  handsome 
form,  are  very  desirable  features  in  connection  with  their  many 
other  good  qualities,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  comparative 
small  amount  of  food  they  require. 

"The  Suffolks  are  rapidly  g-iining  in  favor,  and  wherever  intro- 
duced give  good  satisfaction.  Taey  are  quite  hardy  ami  thrive  in 
almost  any  climate  that  any  of  their  species  will,  from  the  most 
northern  part  of  Canada  to  southern  Missouri  and  California.  We 
know  that  they  flourish  and  give  satisfaction,  as  hundreds  of  my 
customers  can  testify. 

"Canada,  Michigan,  New  York,  parts  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  IllinoN, 
Iowa,  and  other  States,  are  rapidly  becoming  stocked  with  them, 
and  in  my  opinion  it  will  not  be  many  years  before  they  become 
"the  hog  "of  the  country.  There  is  no  possible  question  about 
their  being  the  very  best  thoroughbred  for  improving  the  common  <T 
native  breeds,  and  for  this  quality  alone  they  would  be  entitled  to 
a  front  rank  in  the  list  of  valuable  breeds." 

The  Report  adopted  by  the  "National  Convention  of 
Swine  Breeders"  on  Suffolk  swine,  is  as  follows  : 

"Mr.  Sidney  says:  Yorkshire  stands  in  the  first  rank  as  a  pig 
breeding  county,  possessing  the  largest  white  breed  in  England 
as  well  as  an  excellent  medium  and  small  breed,  all  white,  the  last 
of  which,  transplanted  into  the  south,  has  figured  and  won  prizes 
under  the  names  of  divers  noblemen  and  gentlemen,  and  in  more 
than  one  county.  The  Yorkshires  are  closely  allied  with  the 
Cumberland  breeds,  and  have  been  so  much  intermixed  that,  with 
the  exception  of  the  very  largest  breeds,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  where 
the  Cumberland  begins  and  where  the  Yorkshire  ends.  It  will  be 
enough  to  say,  for  the  present,  that  the  modern  Manchester  boar, 
the  improved  Suffolk,  the  improved  Middlesex,  the  Coleshill,  and 
the  Prince  Albert  or  Windsor,  were  all  founded  on  Yorkshire- 
Cumberland  stock,  and  some  of  them  are  merely  pure  Yorkshires 
transplanted  and  re-christened. 

Speaking  of  pigs  kept  in  the  dairy  district  of  Cheshire,  he  says, 
4  white  pigs  have  not  found  favor  with  the  dairymen  of  Cheshire, 
and  the  white  ones  most  used  are  Manchester  boars,  another  name 
for  the  Yorkshire- Cumberland  breed.'  He  says,  in  another  place, 
and  all  the  authors  who  have  followed  him,  down  to  the  latest 
published  work  on  the  subject,  occupy  space  in  describing  various 
county  pigs,  which  have  long  ceased  to  possess,  if  ever  they  pos- 
sessed, any  merit  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  breeder.  Thua 


THE   SUFFOLKS.  61 

the  Norfolk,  the  Suffolk,  the  Bedford,  the  Cheshire,  have  each 
separate  notice,  not  one  of  which,  except  the  Suffolk,  is  worthy 
of  cultivation,  and  the  Suffolk  is  only  another  name  for  a  small 
Yorkshire  pig. 

"CHARACTERISTICS   AND   MARKINGS   OF   SUFFOLKS. 

"  Head  small,  very  short ;  cheeks  prominent  and  full ; 
face  dished  ;  snout  small  and  very  short ;  jowl  fine  ;  ears 
short,  small,  thin,  upright,  soft,  and  silky ;  neck  very 
short  and  thick,  the  head  appearing  almost  as  if  set  on 
front  of  shoulders  ;  no  arching  of  crest ;  chest  wide  and 
deep — elbows  standing  out ;  brisket  wide  but  not  deep  ; 
shoulders  thick,  rather  upright,  rounding  outwards  from 
top  to  elbow ;  crops  wide  and  full ;  sides  and  flanks, 
long  ribs,  well  arched  out  from  back,  good  length  be- 
tween ;  shoulders  and  hams,  flank  well  filled  out,  and 
coming  well  down  at  ham  ;  back  broad,  level,  and  straight 
from  crest  to  tail,  no  falling  off  or  down  at  tail ;  hams 
wide  and  full,  well  rounded  out,  twist  very  wide  and  full 
all  the  way  down  ;  legs  small  and  very  short,  standing 
wide  apart,  in  sows  just  keeping  belly  from  the  ground  ; 
bone  fine  ;  feet  small,  hoofs  rather  spreading  ;  tail  small, 
long,  and  tapering ;  skin  thin,  of  a  pinkish  shade,  free 
from  color ;  hair  fine  and  silky,  not  too  thick  ;  color  of 
hair  pale  yellowish  white,  perfectly  free  from  any  spots  or 
other  color  ;  size  small  to  medium." 


Since  about  1882  several  gentlemen,  particularly  in 
Eastern  States,  have  taken  much  interest  in  what  are 
designated  as  4< Small  Yorkshires."  They  are  neat  little 
white  hogs,' with  wonderfully  short,  dished  faces,  and  so 
much  like  the  Suffolks  that  some  persons  who  raise  both 
confess  they  can  scarcely  distinguish  them  apart.  Their 
similarity  is  so  great  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  Suffolk 
makes  a  very  good  small  Yorkshire,  and  vice  versa. 


62  SWINE 


CHAPTER    VII. 

THE   ESSEX. 

The  Essex  breed  of  swine  is  comparatively  unknown 
among  the  general  farmers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  and 
we  have  no  knowledge  of  their  being  raised  in  any  con- 
siderable numbers  for  pork.  Still,  in  some  localitk-s, 
they  are  bred  in  a  limited  way  —  more,  perhaps,  in  Ken- 
tucky, than  elsewhere  —  and  we  have  never  encounteivil  a 
person  who  had  once  tried  them,  who  did  not  p! 
high  estimate  on  their  value  as  a  small  breed,  and 
especially  on  the  boars  to  use  for  crossing  on  sows  of 
larger  breeds. 

They  seem  to  be  essentially  the  same  as  the  Suffolk.-. 
except  in  their  black  color,  and  less  liability  to  skin  dis- 
eases, which  would  in  a  majority  of  cases  make  them  the 
favorites  over  their  white  competitors. 

We  think  there  is  small  probability  that  the  Essex 
swine,  as  now  bred,  will  ever  become  the  prevailing 
breed,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  of  a  smaller  class  of 
hogs  than  most  farmers  care  to  raise,  or  packers  to  buy 
and  handle,  and  we  deem  it  improbable  that  the  next 
fifty  or  one  hundred  years  will  witness  the  raising  of 
smaller  swine,  generally,  than  the  Bcrkshires,  and  it  is 
more  than  likely  that,  in  the  future,  the  happy  medium 
will  be  an  animal  in  size  between  the  best  modeled  small- 
boned  Berkshire  and  the  coarser  Poland-Chinas  of  the 
present  time. 

Just  here,  perhaps,  is  a  fitting  place  to  remark  —  and 
we  do  so  after  full  deliberation—  that  the  party  who  can 
exhibit  at  the  next  Centennial  Exposition  any  better  feed- 
ing hogs,  or  those  better  suited  for  general  purposes  than 
a  cross  between  the  two  last-named  breeds,  will  have 
some  stock  to  be  very  proud  of. 


THE   ESSEX. 


»63 


64  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Sidney's  "  Youatt  on  the  Pig/'  (London,'  1860),  says  : 

"  Early  maturity,  and  an  excellent  quality  of  flesh,  arc  among 
the  merits  of  the  improved  Essex.  *  *  * 

"The  defect  of  the  improved  Essex  is  a  certain  delicacy,  prob- 
ably arising  from  their  southern  descent,  and  an  excessive  aptitude 
to  fatten,  which,  unless  carefully  counteracted  by  exercise  and 
diet,  often  diminishes  the  fertility  of  the  sows,  and  causes  <iiili 
culty  in  rearing  the  young. 

"As  before  observed,  they  are  invaluable  as  a  cross,  being  sun- 
to  give  quality  and  early  maturity  to  any  breed,  and  esprri.-.lly 
valuable  when  applied  to  a  black  breed,  where  porkers  are  required. 
For  this  purpose  they  have  been  extensively  and  successfully  used, 
in  all  the  black  pig  districts  of  this  country,  [Great  Britain,]  when-, 
as  well  as  in  France  and  Germany,  and  in  the  Tinted  St:it« •*.  ti,,  \ 
have  superseded  the  use  of  the  imported  Neapolitan  and  Chinese. 

"  Many  attempts,  on  a  limited  scale,  to  perpetuate  the  breed  pun  , 
have  been  unsatisfactory,  because  it  is  too  pure  to  stand  in-and-in 
breeding.  They  require  much  care  when  young. 

"  In  the  sows,  the  paternal  fattening  properties  arc  apt  to  over- 
balance the  milking  qualities,  and  make  them  bad  nurses.  *  *  * 

"The  improved  Essex  are  ranked  amongst  the  small  breed- 
there  they  are  most  profitable ;  but  exceptional  specimens  have 
been   exhibited  at  agricultural  shows  in  the  classes  for  large 
breeds." 

Mr.  Wm.  Smith  (before  quoted  under  Suffolks)  breeds 
the  Essex  extensively,  near  Detroit,  Mich.,  and  writes  of 
them  thus  : 

"  This  is  a  breed  that  will  be  appreciated  in  proportion  as  it 
becomes  known.  Their  characteristics  are  almost  identical  with 
those  of  the  Suffolks,  except  that  the  Suffolks  are  a  pure  white, 
while  the  Essex  are  a  beautiful  jet  black.  This  is  always  the  case', 
and  any  mixture  of  color,  in  either,  is  inadmissible.  The  style, 
form,  size,  disposition,  and  feeding  qualities  are  similar  in  the  im-' 
proved  breeds;  and  the  pork  of  the  Essex  will  dress  as  white  as 
any,  if  rightly  managed.  Although  they  are  considered  one  of  the 
oldest  established  breeds,  yet  there  have  been  frequent  and  marked 
improvements  within  the  past  fifty  years,-not  tho  least  of  which 
has  been  reached  during  the  present  deeade. 

"To  Lord  Western,  of  Mark's  Hall,  Essex,  England,  is  given  the 
credit  for  their  first  great  improvement,  or  I  mi-ht  say,  of  Iwing 
the  originator  of  the  present  type,  though  it  was  much  inferior  to 


THE    KSSKX.  65 

that  of  the  present  day.  This  improvement  was  brought  about 
by  the  introduction  into  his  herd  of  the  Neapolitan  pig — a  small, 
fine-boned,  black  breed  from  Italy.  The  late  Fisher  Ilobbs,  of  the 
same  place,  followed  up  the  improvements  on  the  Western  breed, 
until  he  has  made  a  reputation  for  himself  and  breed  that  is  world- 
wide. 

"Sir  George  Mumford  Sexton  and  other  noted  breeders  have 
•ucceeded  in  keeping  tlu  in  up  with  the  advancing  times,  and  to-day 
there  is  no  animal,  of  any  kind,  that  shows  finer  or  more  perfect 
breeding. 

"There  are  many  black  hogs  in  this  country  that  are  called 
Essex,  and  which  may  have  originated  from  the  unimproved  ! 
stock  that  was  introduced  a  few  years  since,  and  though  they  may 
represent  the  name,  they  come  far  short  of  representing  the  quality 
of  the  improved  breed  ;  and  as  a  consequence  many  who  have;  had 
experience  or  acquaintance  with  the  former,  have  but  little  faith 
in  the  latter,  from  a  want  of  the  knowledge  of  the  great  difference 
between  them. 

"  Tin-  improved  Essex  matures  early  and  attains  good  size,  often 
reaching  from  four  to  five  hundred  weight.  Their  meat  is  excel- 
lent, and,  like  the  Suffolks,  can  be  made  fit  for  pork  at  any  age, 
from  a  montli  upward.  They  are  favorites  with  all  breeders  of 
them.  In  England  there  are  many  counties  that  scarcely  know 
any  other  breeds  than  the  Suffolk  or  Essex.  They  are  marketed 
by  the  thousands  for  light  family  and  butchers' pork  when  from 
five  to  eight  months,  and  for  that  purpose  there  are  none  better. 
Tiny  command  a  higher  price  than  the  coarser  pork,  and  the 
market  reports  always  make  a  distinction  in  the  quotations,  and 
show  a  wide  dill'-rencc  in  the  prices  hi  favor  of  these  breeds. 
*  *  *  I  could  find  much  to  say  about,  ami  in  praise  of  the  Essex, 
but  I  will  only  add  here,  that  they  are  hardy,  healthy,  and  prolific." 

Dr.  Chase,  of  Kansas,  in  his  description  of  the  leading 
bivrds,  says:  "  We  must  say  a  word  for  the  little  Es- 
tta  They  are  more  squarely  built  than  the  Berkshire, 
quiet,  docile  animals,  that  fatten  almost  at  the  sight  of 
corn,  and  weigh,  under  ordinary  treatment,  when  full 
grown,  from  250  to  275  pounds.  As  a  thorough-bred 
stock,  to  breed  to  common  sows,  we  do  not  believe  they 
will  produce  as  large  grade  animals  as  the  Berkshire. 

"  For  the  gentleman  in  town,  or  the  small  farmer,  we 


66  6WINE   HUSBANDRY. 

know  of  none  that  will  give  better  gati  than  the 

Essex." 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  MARKINGS   OF  E.^ 

The  report    adopted    by   the   Convention  of    Sunn 
Breeders,  of  characteristics  of  this  breed,  is  as  foil.- 

"  The  Essex  is  a  black  hog,  originating  in  the  .-<»ui  h  •»!' 
England.  They  are  of  small  to  medium  in  size,  ami  arc 
extensively  used  in  England  to  cross  on  the  large,  coarse 
swine,  to  improve  their  fattening  qualities. 

"  The  best  specimens  may  be  known  as  follows  :  < 
black  ;  face  short  and  dishing  ;  ears  small,  soft,  and 
stand  erect  while  young,  but  coming  down  somewhat  at 
they  get  age  ;  carcass  long,  broad,  straight,  and  <!«•.  [•  : 
ham  heavy  and  well  let  down ;  bone  fine  ;  carcass, 
when  fat,  composed  mostly  of  lard  ;  hair,  ordinarily 
rather  thin.  The  fattening  qualities  ln-iiiLT  MT\  SIIJM  rim-. 
As  breeders  they  are  very  prolific,  and  are  fair  nurses." 

Since  the  foregoing  was  prepared,  we  have   re< •< 
from  Mr.  E.  W.  Cottrell,  of  Greenfield,  Mich.,  the  fol- 
lowing, under  date  of  December  15th,  1876  : 

"  Yes  ;  I  will  cheerfully  give  you  my  estimate  of  tin- 
Essex,  and  will  premise  by  saying,  that  during  my  expe- 
rience in  breeding  and  managing  thorough-bred  pigs  for 
the  past  ten  years,  I  have,  some  of  the  time,  exceeded  a 
a  thousand  choice  animals  of  the  improved  breeds,  in- 
cluding the  Essex  in  considerable  numbers,  which  has 
given  me  an  opportunity  to  compare  and  experiment  upon 
their  relative  merits,  under  the  same  and  different  treat- 
ment, alongside  of  each  other.  I  also  have  intimate 
knowledge  of  the  experience  of  a  gentleman  who  has 
bred  these  pigs,  with  others,  for  the  past  forty  years, 
both  in  this  country  and  in  England. 

"As  a  result  of  this  experience,  I  can  say  that,  in  my 
estimation,  they  take  rank  among  the  best." 

"  The  Essex  are  as  distinct  from  all  other  types  as  it  is 


THE   ESSEX.  «     67 

possible  for  one  breed  to  differ  from  another,  and  still 
possess  the  principal  valuable  features  belonging  to  the 
spiries.  In  form,  quality,  and  disposition,  they  more 
iK'urly  resemble  the  Suffolk  than  any  other  breed,  and,  in 
fact,  there  is  a  similarity  between  them  in  this  respect. 

"In  the  improved  breed,  the  style,  form,  color,  size, 
disposition,  and  general  characteristics,  are  very  uniform. 
They  are  certainly  a  standard  breed,  and  one  of  the  old- 
est established.  Mr.  William  Smith,  of  Detroit,  has 
been  the  most  extensive  importer  and  breeder  of  them 
that  I  know,  and  they  have  always  been  favorites  with 
him,  both  here  and  in  England,  where  he  has  successfully 
competed  with  the  most  noted  breeders.  His  thorough 
knowledge  and  experience  has  enabled  him  to  give  the 
lu-ird  a  still  higher  value  than  they  possessed,  even  be- 
fore. 

"  They  mature  early,  their  meat  is  excellent,  and  a 
year,  at  most,  should  suffice  to  feed  them  to  the  most 
profitable  condition  for  pork  ;  which  is  one  of  their  mer- 
its, and  when  fat,  the  carcass  should  yield  a  large  propor- 
tion of  lard. 

"  They  are  invariably  black  ;  should  have  a  short, 
dished  face  ;  soft,  fine,  ears  when  young,  though  with 
age  they  will  begin  to  grow  heavier,  and  droop  somewhat. 
The  body  should  be  of  medium  length,  broad,  deep  and 
straight ;  with  a  heavy  ham,  well  let  down,  and  bone  fine, 
but  strong  enough  to  support  the  carcass  in  good  style. 
When  in  condition,  the  proportions  should  always  be 
symmetrical  and  pleasing ;  medium,  well-haired,  with  a 
fine  and  comparatively  soft  coat. 

"  They  possess  powers  of  transmitting  to  their  progeny 
an  excess  of  their  own  good  qualities,  when  crossed  upon 
common  and  coarser  swine,  and  the  first  cross  upon  our 
natives  will  improve  their  qualities,  almost  beyond  recog- 
nition. Excepting  the  Suffolks,  there  is  no  breed  that 
can  compare  with  them  for  this  purpose. 


68  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

"As  breeders  and  nurses,  they  are  very  fair,  though 
not  equal  to  the  Berkshires.     In  fact,  all  thorough-brod 
animals,  as   they  become  refined,  or  'high  bred.'  i 
their  fecund  propensities  to  a  greater  or  less  » -\t< -ut  ;  but 
ordinarily,  with  good  management,  no  serious  iliihVulty 
need  be  experienced  on  this  point  with  well  bred   K 
It  is  essential,  however,  that  the  brood  sows  be  matin-. d, 
and  not  permitted  to  become  too  fat,  which  latin-  i-  oftm 
apt  to  be  the  case,  with  good  feed  and  treatment. 

"Good  pasture,  with  plenty  of  water,  will  kr.  |>  timu 
in  ample  condition  for  breeding,  throughout  tl-  whole 
grazing  season.  In  fact,  I  have  known  them  to  come  <>ut 
of  a  good  clover  field  in  the  fall,  *  killing  fat/  without 
having  had  any  other  feed.  They  are  good  graziers,  ami 
have  the  advantage  over  some  of  the  more  tender-skinned 
white  hogs,  of  being  able  to  withstand,  (at  an\  air- -,  how- 
ever young,)  the  hottest  sun  of  July  or  August,  without 
having  their  backs  or  skin  in  the  least  affected,  and  they 
are  never  known  to  scald  or  mange. 

"The  young  pigs  of  the  Essex  are  usually  more  <l.-li- 
cate  than  those  of  the  coarser  breeds,  and  will  often  ap- 
poar  quite  inferior  to  the  latter,  at  the  same  age,  up  to 
eight  or  ten  weeks,  when  they  will  begin  to  shoot  ahead, 
and  'show  their  breeding.'  This  is  not  always  the  case, 
but  often  is,  and  I  attribute  it  to  the  mothers  not  being 
such  good  milkers  as  some  other  kinds.  It  seems  to  be 
their  nature  to  run  to  fat  rather  than  milk. 

"  I  have  no  trouble  in  successfully  breeding  my  Essex, 
and  almost  invariably  find  purchasers  well  satisfied,  and 
thenceforth  advocates  of  the  breed. 

"In  my  opinoin,  though  they  may  never  become  so 
popular  as  some,  they  will  still  be  a  valuable  standard 
breed." 


YORKSHIRES.  69 


CHAPTER     VIII. 

YORKSHIRES.— CHESHIRES,  OR  JEFFERSON  COUNTY 
SWINE,  OF  NEW  YORK.— LANG ASHIRES.— VICTO- 
RIAS.—NEAPOLITAN  S.- JERSEY  REDS.— DUROCS. 

The  breeds  of  swine  named  above  are  so  little  known 
by  the  general  farmers  of  the  country,  that  such  merits 
as  they  have  are  overlooked  and  neglected.  Unlike  the 
more  prominent  breeds,  the  information  to  be  obtained 
respecting  them  is  quite  meagre. 

\\ V  have  been  unable  to  find  anything  of  much  im- 
portance, or  that  would  be  deemed  more  authentic  than 
the  reports  made  to,  and  adopted  by  the  National  Con- 
vention of  Swine  Breeders,  held  at  Indianapolis,  Novem- 
ber 20th,  1872. 

YORKSHIRES. 

We  have  never  met  in  the  West,  at  fairs  or  elsewhere, 
a  distinct  breed  of  swine  known  as  Yorkshires,  nor  have 
we  conversed  with  any  one  having  any  positive  practical 
knowledge  of  them,  but  submit  the  report  on  this  breed 
as  presented  to  the  Convention  at  Indianapolis  : 

Professor  Jones,  of  Iowa ;  Jacob  Kennedy,  and  I.  N.  Barker,  of 
Indiana,  in  their  Report  on  Yorkshires  have  the  following  : 

*  *  *  *  "  Their  color  and  characteristics  have  been  traced,  in  a 
greater  or  lesa  degree,  into  every  popular  breed  of  swine  which 
has  been  made  up  or  attempted  to  be  established  as  thorough-bred, 
either  in  the  United  States  or  England  ;  indeed,  we  might  say,  into 
every  breed,  save  the  Essex,  or  Neapolitan,  imported  by  Lord  West- 
ern. These  were  the  only  pure  bred  black  hogs  of  which  we  have 
any  account,  either  in  this  country  or  the  old.  And  we  think  it 
may  safely  be  said  of  these  white  hogs,  that  they  are  the  only  pure 
and  distinct  breed  of  hogs  or  pigs,  save  the  black,  that  are  now 
bred  on  this  continent.  Do  not  understand  us  as  contending  that 
all  black  and  all  white  hogs  are  thorough  or  pure  bred ;  but  that 
all  breeds  in  this  country  of  mixed  colors  are  what  their  color 
indicates — are  mixed  or  cross  bred,  hence  not  pure  and  distinct  . 


70 


SWLNE   HUSBANDRY. 


. 


Ull-    , 


. 


YORKSHIRES.  71 

breeds.  That  this  is  correct,  is,  we  think,  fully  established  by  the 
history  of  each  popular  breed,  as  given  by  the  breeders  them- 
selves, as  well  as  by  Youatt,  Harris,  and  others,  who  have  given 
detailed  accounts  of  how  each  valuable  breed  has  been  formed. 
Nearly  or  quite  all  of  these  breeds  are  indebted  for  many  of  their 
valuable  qualities  to  their  crosses  with  the  Yorkshire  and  other 
white  English  and  China  hogs.  And  among  the  breeds  so  in- 
debted are  the  Chester  White,  the  Thin-Rind,  the  Berkshire,  and 
the  Magie,  or  Poland-China.  All  these  breeds  seem  to  have  bor- 
rowed some  of  their  good  qualities  from  these  original  white  hogs, 
and  all  arc  made  up  from  crosses  of  the  white  and  black  hog  ; 
hence  the  character  of  the  English  or  white  hog  crops  out  occa- 
sionally in  almost  every  breed  known  in  this  country  or  England. 
Accordingly,  we  believe  it  may  be  said  that  they  arc  the  purest 
breed  of  hogs,  and  the  best  in  this  country  or  England  from  which 
to  make  crosses  in  forming  a  new  or  reliable  breed. 

"  Tin-  English  white  hogs,  like  other  breeds,  vary  much  in  size, 
front  the  large  hog  to  the  China  pig,  so  that  the  breeder  can  change 
the  size  of  his  stock,  or  the  coat  it  wears  from  a  heavy  coat  of 
hair  to  the  short  and  smooth,  to  suit  his  fancy  or  the  condition  of 
the  climate  in  which  he  lives.  All  white  hogs  arc  noted  for  pos- 
scs-ii!ur  qui.-t  dispositions. 

"The  Cumberland,  a  middle-bred  Yorkshire,  have,  we  think,  at- 
tained nearer  perfection  than  any  other  breed  known  to  us.  They 
are  m.t  generally  distributed  throughout  the  West,  but  when  thor- 
ough-bred specimens  have  been  introduced,  they  arc  held  in  great 
esteem,  as  well  for  an  animal  for  exhibition  purposes,  as  for  family 
use.  They  are  especial  favorites  with  packers,  who  buy  their 
stock  on  foot,  for  the  reason  that  they  yield  larger  proportionate 
net  weights  than  any  other  hogs  which  grow  large  enough  for  their 
use.  They  are  small  in  bone,  but  large  in  flesh,  of  the  very  best 
quality,  evenly  and  proportionately  spread  over  the  whole  frame. 
We  have  weighed  and  measured  one  of  this  breed  raised  in  Dear- 
born county,  Indiana,  that  we  think  worthy  of  special  note,  as 
possessing  a  strong  combination  of  good  qualities  typical  of  her 
ancestors.  She  weighed  in  good  flesh,  but  not  really  fat,  475  Ibs. ; 
and  at  that  weight  measured  six  feet  from  the  root  of  the  tail  to 
the  top  of  the  face  between  the  ears,  and  the  same  number  of  feet 
around  the  body.  She  was  two  feet  ten  inches  high,  and  stood 
only  six  inches  from  the  ground ;  body  nearly  straight  below  and 
well  arched  above,  indicating  great  strength  in  the  back  and  loins ; 
legs  that  were  less  than  one-fifth  the  depth  of  the  body,  and  they 


72  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

very  small,  straight,  and  smooth,  measuring  below  the  kn< •«•  l»ut  six 
inches  in  circumference.  The  surface  of  her  body,  jowl,  ;u 
was  smooth,  and  free  from  ridges  and  creases,  ;uul  \vrll  «• 
with  a  short,  smooth  coat  of  white  hair.  This  we  think,  iniirht 
be  taken  as  a  fair  description  of  til  thorough-bred  animals  of  this 
stock.  It  seems  to  be  in  this  country,  as  it  is  said  to  be  in  England, 
in  almost  every  way  a  middle  breed.  We  know  of  no  breed  of 
hogs  in  this  country  but  what  might  in  some  degree  be  impn>\<  <l 
by  crossing  occasionally  with  the  thorough-bred  Yorkshire-,  whirh 
has  been  bred  pure  in  this  country  since  1860.  We  him  MI  n  \\  Imle 
neighborhoods  and  districts  where  the  swine  were  nearly  all  lop- 
eared,  rough-skinned,  black,  sandy,  and  spotted  white  or  blue, 
where,  in  a  few  years,  by  introducing  a  few  of  thes<  pun-  blooded 
white  hogs,  the  general  stock  was  made  white,  given  «-r«rt  ears, 
and  skin  made  smooth.  Such  a  result  cannot  be  attained  l>\ 
ter  Whites  alone,  but  it  can  be  accomplished  by  the  thorough -bred 
Yorkshire.  They  are  so  thorough-bred  and  positive  that  they  i-.-irry 
their  own  color  when  crossed  with  almost  any  other  bm-<l.  r\  •  -n  if 
It  is  entirely  black.  Hence  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  breed  of 
in  this  age  of  their  improvement,  in  which  the  white  York- 
shire does  not  crop  out  in  some  particular.  And  again,  the  pure 
white  Yorkshire  and  the  black  Essex,  or  Neapolitan,  may  l><  bml 
together  in  such  a  way  ns  to  duplicate  the  color  of  any  other  breed 
of  hogs  to  be  found  among  us.  And  hence  we  claim  the  white 
Yorkshire,  as  now  established  in  this  country  and  England,  is  the 
most  thorough-bred  hog  known.  The  Yorkshires  are  the  most  valu- 
able swine  to  breed  from  or  to  cross  with  that  we  have  ever  UK  t 
with  in  this  country ;  and  for  these  reasons:  1.  They  are  of  a  size, 
shape,  and  flesh,  th  t  are  desirable  for  the  family  or  the  packer's 
use.  2.  They  have  a  hardy,  vigorous  constitution,  and  a  good  coat 
of  hair  protecting  the  skin  so  well,  either  in  extreme  cold  or  hot 
weather,  that  it  rarely  freezes  or  blisters.  3.  They  are  very  quiet, 
and  good  graziers ;  they  feed  well  and  fatten  quickly  at  any  age. 
4.  Tliey  arc  very  prolific  and  good  mothers,  and  the  young  never 
vary  in  color,  and  so  little  in  shape  that  their  form,  when  matured, 
may  be  determined  in  advance  by  an  inspection  of  the  sire  and 
dam.  This  we  have  learned  by  a  practical  experience  of  many 
years  in  breeding,  slaughtering,  packing,  and  consuming. 

"  '  The  Yorkshire  medium  or  middle  breed,'  in  the  words  of  Mr. 
Sydney, 'is  a  modern  invention  of  Yorkshire  pig-breeders,  and 
perhaps  the  most  useful  and  the  most  popular  of  the  white  breeds, 
as  it  unites,  in  a  striking  degree,  the  good  qualities  of  the  large 
and  the  small.  It  has  been  produced  by  a  cross  of  the  large  and 


CHESHIRE,    OB  JEFFERSON   CO.    SWINE.  73 

the  small  York  and  the  Cumberland,  which  is  larger  than  the  small 
York.  Like  the  large  whites,  they  often  have  a  few  pale-hlue  spots 
on  the  skin,  the  hair  on  these  spots  being  white.  All  white  breeds 
have  these  spots  more  or  less,  and  they  often  increase  in  number 
as  the  animals  grow  older.  *  *  *  * 

"  The  middle  Yorkshire  breed  are  about  the  same  size  as  the 
nerk-hirc  breed,  but  have  smaller  heads,  and  are  much  lighter 
in  the  bone.  They  are  better  breeders  than  the  small  whites,  but 
not  so  good  as  the  large  whites ;  in  fact,  they  occupy  a  position  in 
every  respect  between  the  two  breeds.  Hence  their  size  can  be 
increased  or  diminished  without  crosses  with  any  other  breed  or 
color." 

cm:-mi;K,  OR  JEFFERSON  COUNTY  SWINE  OF  NEW  YORK. 

The  following  was  adopted  by  the  Swine  Breeders' 
Convention,  of  1872,  as  the  report  upon  this  breed  : 

"  These  hogs  originated  in  Jefferson  county,  New  York,  and  it 
is  claimed  by  some  of  the  breeders  that  they  started  from  a  pair 
of  pigs  bought  of  Mr.  Woolford,  of  Albany,  New  York,  which 
were  called  Cheshires.  However  that  may  be,  there  is  no  such 
disiinct  breed  of  hogs  known  as  Cheshires,  in  England,  and  there 
is  no  record  of  any  hogs  of  this  name  having  been  imported  into 
this  country. 

"  Yorkshires  ha\e  been  imported  into  Jefferson  county  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  so-called  Cheshires  have  been  improved  by 
crossing  with  tbeir  best  hogs  bought  in  Canada.  Mr.  A.  C.  Clark, 
of  Henderson,  was,  for  a  number  of  years,  a  prominent  breeder  of 
these  pigs,  and  he  informed  us  that  whenever  he  found  a  pig  bet- 
ter than  those  he  owned,  he  purchased  it  and  crossed  it  upon  his 
own  stock.  Li  this  way  this  family  of  hogs  have  been  produced, 
and  they  are  now  known  and  bred  in  many  portions  of  the  United 
Stales.  Their  breeding  in  Jefferson  county  has  diminished  during 
the  last  two  or  three  years. 

"  They  are  pure  white,  with  .1  very  thin  skin  of  pink  color,  with 
little  hair;  are  not  uniform  in  this  respect,  as  pigs  in  the  same  lit- 
ter differ  widely  in  the  amount  of  hair ;  the  snout  is  often  long, 
but  very  slender  and  fine ;  the  jowls  are  plump  and  the  ears  erect, 
fine  and  thin ;  the  shoulders  are  wide,  and  the  hams  full;  the 
flesh  of  these  hogs  is  fine-grained,  and  they  are  commended  on 
account  of  the  extra  amount  of  mess  pork  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  offal ;  the  tails  of  the  pigs  frequently  drop  off  when 
young.'* 


74  >  WINK    II'  -i;.\M)RT. 

Under  date  of  April  lltli,  187G,  Col.  F.  D.  Curtis 
(who  made  the  foregoing  report)  writes  the  author  : 
"  There  is  nothing  to  add  to  the  report.  I  do  not  know 
of  but  one  breeder  of  these  pigs  in  Jefferson  county, 
N.  Y.,  at  the  present  time,  who  makes  their  breeding  a 
specialty.  There  was  never  a  connected  effort  to  inaki- 
them  uniform,  ami  thus  establish  a  breed,  and  it  was 
quite  common,  in  our  State,  to  call  any  cross  of  York- 
shires or  Suffolks  by  the  name  of  Chcshires. 

"  Mr.  Clark,  as  long  as  he  bred,  bred  to  a  standard,  and 
I  think  Mr.  Green,  who  is  the  leading  breeder  now,  is 
trying  to  do  the  same  thing." 

Several  breeders  of  fine  stock,  in  Kentucky,  and  some 
of  the  Western  States,  have  hogs  that  are  called  Cheshire, 
but  we  are  doubtful  of  their  being  bred  the  same  as  the 
swine  known  by  that  name  in  New  York,  and  the  more 
Eastern  States. 

Knowing  Mr.  J.  H.  Sanders  of  Chicago,  a  well-known 
writer  on  live  stock,  had  bred  "Cheshircs"  somewhat 
extensively,  and  with  success,  in  Iowa,  we  applied  to  him 
for  some  authentic  information  respecting  them. 

He  replies  :  "  In  my  opinion,  the  Cheshire  is  simply  a 
derivative  of  the  Yorkshire,  as  arc  also  the  Suffolk,  Lan- 
cashire Short-face,  Middle  York,  York-Cumberland,  and 
all  the  other  English  breeds  of  white  hogs.  I  bred  the 
so-called  Cheshires  for  six  or  seven  years,  and  took  a  deep 
interest  in  noticing  the  variations  and  changes  that  were 
produced  in  that  time  by  selection,  in-breeding,  and  cross- 
ing. Within  the  space  of  seven  years,  without  intro- 
ducing any  blood  but  what  was  supposed  to  bo  pure,  I 
produced,  all  the  different  types  of  the  Yorkshire,  from 
the  large  York,  down  to  the  Lancashire  Short-face. 

The  white  color  was  firmly  fixed,  and  I  never  knew 
one  of  my  Cheshire  boars  to  get  a  pig  that  had  a  black 
hair  on  it,  although  they  were  bred  to  sows  of  all  breeds, 
including  the  purest  Essex.  Another  peculiarity  that  I 


VICTORIAS  75 

watched  with  interest,  was  the  frequent  appearance  of 
blue  spots  in  the  skin  of  the  purest  and  best  bred  speci- 
mens. This  peculiarity  would  sometimes  disappear  for 
<>nr  or  two  generations,  and  would  again  crop  out  stronger 
than  ever. 

"  The  type  which  I  finally  succeeded  in  fixing  upon  the 
Cheshires,  as  bred  by  me,  was  almost  identical,  in  size, 
form,  and  quality,  with  the  most  approved  medium  Berk- 
shire. Indeed,  so  marked  was  this  resemblance  in  every- 
thing but  color,  that  they  were  often  facetiously  called 
•  White  Berkshires.' 

"As  bred  by  me,  I  regarded  them  as  among  the  very 
best  of  white  hogs. 

"They  were  well  haired,  had  a  very  delicate  pink  skin, 
and  their  meat  was  most  excellent, 'tender,  and  juicy" 

VICTORIAS. 

Mr.  Charles  E.  Leland,  of  Albany,  New  York,  sub- 
mitted the  following  report  at  the  Convention  : 

"  The  family  of  pigs  known  as  Victorias  originated  with  Col. 
Frank  D.  Curtis,  Kirby  Homestead,  Charlton,  Saratoga  county, 
New  York.  They  were  made  by  crossing  the  Byfield  hogs  with 
the  native,  in  which  there  was  a  strain  of  the  Grazier.  Subse- 
quent crosses  were  made  with  the  Yorkshire  and  Suffolk  ;  the 
result  being  a  purely  white  hog,  of  medium  size.  The  name 
has  no  significance,  unless  it  is  intended  as  a  compliment  to  the 
English  Queen.  These  pigs,  if  pure  bred,  should  have  a  direct 
descent  from  a  sow  called  Queen  Victoria,  which  may  be  said 
to  be  the  mother  of  the  family.  She  was  pronounced,  by  good 
judges,  to  be  almost  perfect,  and  was  the  winner  of  a  number 
of  first  prizes.  Breeders  in  the  Eastern  States  have  long  felt 
the  need  of  a  medium-sized  white  hog,  with  all  the  good  points 
of  the  English  breeds,  without  their  objectionable  features — a 
breed  which  would  mature  early,  and  be  covered  with  a  good 
coat  of  hair  to  protect  it  from  the  cold  in  winter  and  the  heat 
in  summer.  Col.  Curtis  began  breeding  nearly  twenty  years 
ago  to  try  and  meet  this  want.  At  the  fair  of  the  New  York 
State  Agricultural  Society,  which  was  held  at  Elmira,  he  exhib- 
ited a  sow,  Princess  Alice,  and  six  pigs,  which  was  the  first 


76  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

time  the  Victorias  have  been  presented  at  a  State  fair  for  a  « .  >m 
petition  with  other  swme.    The  first  prize  was  award,  d  t<>  th» 
pigs,  and  the  second  to  the  sow. 
"CHARACTERISTICS  AND   MARKINGS  OP  THB  VICTORIAS. 

"The  color  is  white,  with  a  good  coat  of  fine  soft  hair: 
the  head  thin,  fine,  and  closely  set  on  the  shoulders;  the 
face  slightly  dishing ;  the  snout  short ;  the  ears  erect, 
small,  and  very  light  or  thin;  the  shoulders  bulging  and 
deep ;  legs  short  and  fine ;  the  hack  broad,  straight,  and 
level,  and  the  body  long;  the  hams  round  and  swelling, 
and  high  at  the  base  of  the  tail,  with  plaits  or  folds  be- 
tween the  thighs;  the  tail  fine,  and  free  from  wrinkles 
or  rolls;  feathers  or  rosettes  on  the  back  are  common  : 
the  skin  is  thin,  soft,  and  elastic  ;  the  flesh  fine-grained 
and  firm,  with  small  bone  and  thick  side -pork.  The 
pigs  easily  keep  in  condition,  and  can  be  made  ready  for 
slaughter  at  any  age." 

Since  the  foregoing  was  first  printed  a  gentleman  in 
Laporte  county,  Indiana,  has  made  considerable  progress 
in  "inventing"  and  disseminating  a  family  of  swine  which 
he  has  also  mimed  "Victorias'- ;  but  they  are  in  everyway 
distinct  from  those  originated  by  Col.  Curtis.  They  are 
medium-sized  white  swine  of  plain  appearance,  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  originator  have  been  quite  successful  at  fairs 
and  fat-stock  shows.  To  obtain  them  he  says  he  bred  to- 
gether Berkshires  and  Poland-Chinas,  also  Chester  Whites 
and  Suffolks,  and  then  mated  the  offspring  of  these  mixt- 
ures, which  "has  produced  the  model  hog,  guaranteed  to 
reproduce  itself  white  every  time"! 

NEAPOLITANS. 

We  have  never  seen  a  specimen  of  this  breed,  and  are 
of  the  opinion  that  none  of  them  are  bred,  at  present,  in 
this  country,  unless  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York.  Their 
admitted  influence  in  the  improvement  of  English  breeds, 
especially  the  Essex,  in  the  hands  of  Lord  Western  and 
Mr.  Fisher  Hobbs,  of  Essex,  England,  make  them  of 
interest  to  fanciers  of  highly  refined  pigs. 


NEAPOLITANS.  77 

Colonel  M.  C.  Weld,  of  New  York,  submitted  to  the 
Swim-  Breeders'  Convention  a  lengthy  report  on  Neapoli- 
tans, from  which  we  learn  that  the  best  specimens  im- 
ported into  this  country  came  from  near  Naples,  Italy, 
and  that  their  earliest  introduction  was  by  Hon.  James 
G.  King,  of  Weehawken,  N.  J.,  in  about  1840-41. 

Some  of  these  were  pure  black,  others  slate-color,  some 
ash-colored,  or  a  dirty- white,  and  others  more  or  less 
spotted.  About  1850,  Wm.  Chamberlain,  of  Red  Hook, 
N.  Y.,  imported  some  from  Sorrento,  Italy.  These  and 
some  of  their  progeny  were  uniformly  of  a  dark-slate 
color.  Other  parties,  who  had  traveled  in  Italy,  and  been 
much  pleased  with  the  pork  of  Naples  and  the  surround- 
ing country,  caused  small  stocks  of  these  pigs  to  be  im- 
ported for  their  own  use ;  but  few,  if  any  of  them,  were 
offered  for  sale  for  breeding  purposes. 

It  is  believed  by  some,  who  knew  them  well,  especially 
in  England,  that  this  breed  has  had  an  existence  in  the 
country  about  Naples  for  hundreds  of  years.  Sidney's 
Youatt  on  the  Pig  says:  "  It  is  probable  the  Neapolitans 
are  descendants  of  the  dark  Eastern  swine  imported  by 
early  Italian  voyagers,  and  cultivated  to  perfection  by 
the  favorable  climate  and  welcome  food";  also  that  they 
are  "  black,  or  rather  brown,  with  no  bristles,  and  con- 
sequently delicate  when  first  introduced  into  our  north- 
ern climate." 

About  1855,  Dr.  Phillips,  of  Memphis,  Tennessee,  ob- 
tained some  pigs,  bred  from  the  Chamberlain  importa- 
tions. He  found  them  more  satisfactory  than  any  of  the 
numerous  breeds  he  had  tried,  especially  for  using  as  a 
cross.  In  a  letter  to  Col.  Weld,  he  states  that  "  the  only 
objection  to  the  breed  is  that  the  pigs  are  delicate,  up  to 
*our  or  six  months  of  age — after  that  they  can  live  with 
he  common  hog." 

Col.  Weld  has  owned  them  imported  direct  from  Italy, 
and  thinks  the  fact  that  these  pigs  are  almost  hairless, 


78  SWINE    IIUSBANDKY. 

has  caused  their  reputation  for  del  ic;i(  v,  and  tliat.  tr 
as  a  high-bred  race  should  be,  they  are  not  delicate.  In  it 
quite  the  contrary,  though  he  would  not  have  tln-m   far- 
rowed in  winter,  or  in  too  close  confinement.     Their  pork 
is  described  by  A.  B.  Allen  as  being  like  "young,  ten-l*  r. 
fat  chicken."    They  are  classed  with  the  small  luvols. 
The  Convention  adopted  the  following  as  the 

"CHARACTERISTICS  AND  MARKINGS  OF  THE  NEAPOLITANS. 

"Head  small;  forehead  bony  and  flat;  face  slight  h 
dishing  ;  snout  rather  long  and  very  slender;  ears  small, 
thin,  standing  forward  nearly  horizontally,  and  quite 
lively;  jowls  very  full;  neck  short,  broad,  and  Inavv 
above  ;  trunk  long,  cylindrical,  and  well-ribbed  back  ; 
back  flat,  and  ribs  arching,  even  in  low  flesh  ;  belly  hori- 
zontal on  the  lower  line  ;  hindquarters  higher  than  the 
fore,  but  not  very  much  so  ;  legs  very  fine,  the  bones  and 
joints  being  smaller  than  those  of  any  other  breed  ;  hams 
and  shoulders  well  developed  and  meaty;  tail  fine,  curled, 
flat  at  the  extremity,  and  fringed  with  hair  on  each  side ; 
general  color  slaty,  or  bluish-plum  color,  with  a  cart  of 
coppery-red ;  skin  soft  and  fine,  nearly  free  from  hair, 
which,  when  found  upon  the  sides  of  the  head  and  behind 
the  forelegs,  is  black,  and  soft,  and  rather  long ;  flesh 
firm  and  elastic  to  the  touch." 

JKRSET   REDS. 

The  following  is  from  the  Report  of  the  Convention  : 
"The  positive  origin  of  this  family  of  Swine  is  unknown. 
They  have  been  bred  in  portions  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey, 
for  upwards  of  fifty  years,  and  with  many  farmers  are  con- 
sidered to  be  a  valuable  variety.  They  are  of  large  size  and 
capable  of  making  a  heavy  growth,  five  hundred  and  six  hun- 
dred pounds  weight  being  common.  Mr.  David  Pettitt,  of 
Salem  county,  N.  J.,  has  known  of  these  hogs  for  thirty  years, 
and  Mr.  D.  M.  Brown,  of  Windsor,  for  nearly  fifty  years.  They 
are  now  extensively  bred  in  the  middle  and  southern  portions 
of  New  Jersey.  In  some  neighborhoods  they  are  bred  quite 


DUROCS.  79 

uniform,  being  of  a  dark-red  color,  while  in  other  sections  they 
are  more  sandy,  and  often  patched  with  white.  They  are  prob- 
ably descendants  from  the  old  importations  of  Berkshires,  as 
there  is  no  record  of  the  Tarn  worth,  the  red  hogs  of  England, 
ever  having  been  brought  into  this  country  ;  nor  is  this  likely, 
as  the  Tamworth  were  not  considered  a  valuable  breed,  and 
were  confined  to  a  limited  breeding.  The  Reds  resemble  the 
old  Berkshires  in  many  respects,  but  are  now  much  coarser 
than  the  improved  swine  of  this  breed. 

"CHARACTERISTICS.— A  good  specimen  of  Jersey  Red  should 
be  red  in  color,  with  a  snout  of  moderate  length,  large  lop-ears, 
small  head  in  proportion  to  the  size  and  length  of  the  body  ; 
they  should  be  long  in  the  body,  standing  high  and  rangy  on 
thin  legs  ;  bone  coarse  ;  heavy  tail  and  bcush  ;  hair  coarse,  in- 
cluding the  bristles  on  the  back.  They  are  valuable  on  account 
of  their  size  and  strong  constitution  and  capacity  for  growth. 
They  are  not  subject  to  mange." 

DUUOCS. 

These  hogs  have  only  a  local  reputation,  and  of  them 
CoL  F.  D.  Curtis  reported  to  the  Convention  as  follows  : 

"  There  is  another  family  of  heavy  hogs  called  Duroc,  which 
are  bred  in  Saratoga  county,  New  York,  which  are  finer  in  the 
bone  and  carcass  than  the  Reds.  They  have  been  bred,  with 
their  crosses,  in  this  region  of  country,  for  about  twenty  years. 
They  are  very  hardy,  and  grow  to  a  large  size." 

Early  in  1883  a  number  of  breeders  of  so-called  "red 
•  bogs"  met  at  Elk  Horn,  Wis.,  and  formed  an  organiza- 
tion to  be  known  as  the  Duroc  or  Jersey  Red  Swine 
Club,  with  a  view  to  advance  the  improvement  of  the 
breed,  and  establishing  a  registry  of  pedigrees.  The 
standard  agreed  upon  by  the  Club  is  as  follows  : 

"The  true  Duroc  or  Jersey  Red  should  be  long,  quite  deep- 
bodied,  not  round,  but  broad  on  the  back,  and  holding  the 
width  well  out  to  the  hips  and  hams.  The  head  should  be 
small,  compared  with  the  body,  with  the  cheek  broad  and  full, 
with  considerable  breadth  between  the  eyes.  The  neck  should 
be  short  and  thick,  and  the  face  slightly  curved,  with  the  nose 
rather  longer  than  in  the  English  breeds  ;  the  ears  rather  large 
and  lopped  over  the  eyes  and  not  erect.  Bone  not  fine,  nor  yet 


80  SWINE   III  -I:  \\hKY. 

coarse,  but  medium.  The  legs  medium  in  size  ami  Im-th.  hut 
set  well  under  the  body  and  well  apart,  and  not  cut  up  hi-h  in 
the  flank  or  above  the  knee.  Tin-  hams  should  IN-  l»n>ad  and 
full  well  down  to  the  hock.  There  should  be  a  good  coat  of 
hair  of  medium  fineness,  inclining  to  bristles  at  tin-  top  of  th<> 
shoulders ;  the  tail  being  hairy  and  not  small  ;  th.-  hair  usually 
straight,  but  hi  some  cases  a  little  wavy.  The  color  should  lu- 
red, varying  from  dark,  glossy,  cherry  red,  and  even  bro\\  ni>h 
hair,  to  light  yellowish  red,  with  occasionally  a  small  fleck  of 
black  on  the  belly  and  legs.  The  darker  shades  of  red  are  pre- 
ferred by  most  breeders,  and  this  type  of  color  is  the  mo>i  d.  - 
sirable.  In  disposition  they  are  remarkably  mild  and  p-i.tl.-. 
When  full  grown  they  should  dress  from  four  hundred  to  five 
hundred  pounds,  and  pigs  at  nine  months  old  should  dress  from 
two  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred  pounds." 


CHAPTER     IX. 

THE   RELATIVE   MERITS  OF  THE   SI  FFuLK,    ESSEX, 

AND   I3KKKHI1KJ; 

BY   I.    W.    < 

14  The  question  is  very  often  asked  persons  who  an- 

desirous  of  procuring  some  one  of  Id  of  swine, 

which  of  these  three  standard  on.  besl   for  tin- 

farmer,  and  it  is  a  question  which  I  find  dimVult  to  dec  -id. 
now,  after  quite  an  extensive  experience  of  nearly  six  \  •  -ar-  \\  ith 
the  three  breeds  side  by  side.     I  consider,  however,  that  tin  n    !•* 
so  little  actual  difference  in  the  result,  that  fancy  might  guide  tin- 
choice  without  serious  detriment  to  one's  judgment.    E  i<  h,  hrinir 
a  distinct  and  original  breed,  must  have  its  own  peculiar! ti 
distinctive  qualities,  and  the  question  to  decide  is,  which  of  tin  so 
qualities  are  most  desirable,  and  which  of  the  breeds  possess  and 
combine  the  most  of  them  ? 

*'  Fancy  must  decide  the  question  of  beauty  and  appearance, 
and  one  person's  judgment  in  that  respect  is  as  good  as  another's. 
Association  with  either  for  any  length  of  time  will  generally 
«ion  prejudice  in  its  favor,  and  either  breed  possesses  sufli< •!« -nt 
beauty  to  secure  them  hosts  of  admirers ;  and  while  I  admire  alike 


RELATIVE    MERIT.  81 

perfect  specimens  of  either  breed,  I  believe  that  the  improved 
Berkshire  displays  a  more  majestic  style  and  graceful  appearance 
than  any  other  of  the  swine  species ;  there  seems  to  be  a  stately 
bearing  and  royal  mien,  that  I  cannot  help  but  admire  as  they 
move  abaut  the  premises,  and  the  contrast  of  the  exact  markings 
upon  their  beautiful  black  color  adds  another  feature  of  beauty. 

"  In  regard  to  the  more  essential  question,  however,  of  relative 
quality  and  profit,  I  will  say  that  there  are  several  things  which 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  and  one  must  choose  those 
which  combine  the  greatest  number  of  desirable  qualities  for  his 
purpose ;  that  is,  the  object  in  view  should  decide  the  question.  If 
the  object  is  to  produce  a  superior  quality  of  delicious  and  whole- 
some pork,  beautifully  mixed  with  lean  and  fat,  that  is  tempting 
and  enjoyable  from  almost  any  part  of  the  animal,  I  can  safely 
recommend  the  Berkshire.  They  are  also  probably  the  most  hardy 
of  all  the  improved  swine  species;  alwa}'S  healthy  and  thrifty,  and 
generally  docile  and  quiet  in  their  natures,  besides  being  very  pro- 
lific, perhaps  more  so  than  any  other  of  the  improved  breeds.  The 
sows  are  invariably  good  milkers,  and  good  mothers,  one  often 
successfully  rearing  from  eight  to  twelve  pigs. 

"The  improved  also  mature  quite  early,  and  at  eight  or  nine 
months  will  give  from  two  hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  pork,  and  in  many  cases  much  more,  with  extra  care.  At 
eighteen  months  they  will  run  from  three  hundred  and  fifty  to  four 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  pork  each.  We  have  had  them  weigh, 
at  two  years,  seven  hundred  and  eighty  pounds,  and  not  at  all  coarse 
or  overgrown  in  style  either.  They  are  generally  very  uniform  in 
every  respect,  though  there  arc  some  families  that  attain  a  little 
more  size  than  others.  They  are  not  ravenous  like  the  common 
hog,  but  are  good  feeders,  and  what  they  eat  seems  to  do  them 
good  all  over;  and,  in  fact,  without  discussing  the  subject  further, 
they  can  be  briefly  summed  up  as  a  hardy,  prolific,  domestic,  and 
reasonably  easy-keeping  animal,  and  one  that  can  be  sent  to  mar- 
ket at  almost  any  age,  with  profit  to  the  producer,  and  satisfaction 
to  the  consumer.  Consequently,  in  my  judgment,  one  who  is  un- 
decided in  his  choice  cannot  go  far  astray  in  selecting  the  Berk- 
shires. 

"  In  summing  up  the  desirable  qualities  which  the  Suffolks  pos- 
sess, however,  we  find  them  no  less  valuable,  and  perhaps  even  more 
profitable,  for  some  purposes,  than  those  of  any  other  breed,  unless 
we  except  the  Essex.  They  are  without  question  the  earliest  to 
mature,  take  on  fat  more  readily,  and  produce  more  net  pork  with 


82  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

the  same  amount  of  feed  than  any  other  of  the  hog  kind.  These 
are  certain  facts,  and  very  desirable  ones  when  corn  is  worth  < -iirhty 
cents  per  bushel.  Two  pounds  each  per  day  is  no  uncommon 
average  gain  through  the  feeding  season,  and  I  have  known  an 
increase  of  three  and  one-half  pounds  per  day  for  six  weeks,  or  a 
total  of  one  hundred  and  forty-seven  pounds  for  one  pig  in  six 
weeks  time. 

"  And  this  propensity  for  fattening  exists  from  the  tune  they  are 
sucklings ;  they  can  be  fatted  as  well  at  six  or  eight  months  as  at 
any  other  age ;  and  this  is  a  very  desirable  feature,  for  spring  pigs 
can  be  sent  to  the  market  weighing  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds 
without  much  extra  exertion,  and  the  pork,  rightly  handled,  will 
always  bring  a  half-dollar,  and  perhaps  more,  per  hundred  than 
will  the  commoner  kinds ;  and  in  reality  it  is  worth  much  more  to 
the  consumer  from  the  fact  of  its  quality.  The  head  and  feet  are 
almost  nominal  appendages,  while  the  bones  of  the  carcass  are  so 
fine  and  small  that  they  cause  but  little  loss. 

"  The  objection  is  often  raised  that  they  are  apt  to  be  too  fat  for 
use,  etc.  Of  course  this  is  only  from  persons  of  superficial  ideas. 
It  might  as  well  be  said  that  sugar  is  too  sweet,  or  vinegar  too 
sour,  especially  when  lard  is  eighteen  cents  per  pound,  and  spare- 
ribs  and  other  trimmings  worth  only  four  or  five  cents  per  pound. 
It  is  the  fat  that  affords  the  greatest  profit,  and  profit  being  the 
object,  the  animal  which  will  produce  the  most  fat,  with  the  least 
expense,  is  the  one  for  the  purpose;  and  this  animal  is  unquestion- 
ably the  Suffolk,  for  they  do  certainly  excel  hi  this  peculiarity, 
particularly  at  an  early  age.  Notwithstanding  the  above  facts,  it 
should  not  be  inferred  that  the  pork  is  inferior  as  a  meat  for  the 
table.  The  animal  may  have  a  surplus  of  fat,  but  the  fleshy  parts 
afford  as  delicate  and  wholesome  table  meat  as  can  be  found  among 
the  hog  kind,  and  certainly  as  delicious.  The  trimmings  from  a 
dressed  Suffolk  will  average  but  about  ten  per  cent,  while  those 
from  the  long-legged,  long-nosed,  thick-skinned,  coarse-boned  kind, 
often  make  twenty  per  cent  The  conclusions  obtained  from  the 
above  facts  are  obvious  without  farther  comment,  and  I  will  now 
make  reference  to  some  of  the  other  desirable  features  which  the 
Suffolk  possesses,  a  special  one  being  their  docile,  quiet  disposition. 
They  are  not  inclined  to  stray  if  running  loose,  nor  will  they  root 
up  pastures  and  meadows  if  turned  in  upon  them,  even  if  not  pro- 
vided with  rings ;  and  they  are  seldom  known  to  squeal  or  clamor, 
if  half  cared  for.  It  is  owing  to  this  quiet,  domestic  nature  that 
they  grow  and  fatten  so  rapidly  and  economically.  They  also 


RELATIVE   MERIT.  83 

have  a  good  constitution,  and  are  invariably  healthy  with  us,  when 
past  the  tender  age  ;  also  as  hardy  as  any.  As  before  stated,  they 
are  not  ravenous,  though  good  feeders,  with  a  sharp  appetite  for 
what  they  require.  When  fed  with  regularity,  they  will  be  on 
hand  at  the  usual  time  with  almost  exact  promptness,  and  enter 
into  the  business  of  feeding  with  vigor,  after  which  they  will  retire 
to  their  beds  and  attend  wholly  to  business,  which,  for  them,  is  to 
grow  and  fatten. 

41  The  Essex  are  so  very  similar  to  the  Suffolk,  in  neany  every 
respect  except  color,  that  the  above  description  of  qualities  can  be 
applied  to  them ;  perhaps  they  do  not  mature  quite  so  early  as  the 
former,  but  they  attain  nearly  as  much  weight,  and  fatten  Quite  as 
easy,  having  the  same  quiet  disposition  and  nature.  Their  skins 
from  its  color,  affords  them  one  advantage  over  the  Suftojks ;  that 
is,  when  the  pigs  of  the  latter  are  very  young,  if  exposed  to  a 
burning  sun,  they  are  very  liable  to  scald  or  blistei  upon  the  back, 
while  this  is  never  the  case  with  the  Essex.  Here  let  me  say  that 
when  Suffolk  pigs  are  farrowed  during  the  summer,  or  early  tall, 
when  the  sun  is  strong,  they  should  be  protected  from  its  scalding 
rays  until  five  or  six  weeks  of  age.  The  Essex  have  as  many  good 
qualities  as  any  other  breed,  and  deservedly  have  a  great  many 
friends.  In  fact,  a  person  cannot  go  far  astray  in  selecting  either 
of  the  three  above  breeds,  and  I  am  sure  he  will  be  satisfied  with 
whichever  kind  his  fancy  may  lead  him  to  choose,  after  giving 
them  a  fair  trial." 

In  writing  of  numerous  experiments  made  by  him,  in 
crossing  thorough-bred  swine,  Mr.  Cottrell  says : 

"  There  is  no  question  but  the  proper  crossing  ot  thorough  bred s 
for  a  seaso  i  will  produce  rapid  and  profitable  pork-makers,  but 
there  seems  to  be  some  difference  of  opinion,  and  a  great  lack  ot 
information  hi  general,  among  farmers  and  breeders,  as  to  the 
crosses  that  produce  the  best  results. 

"  The  very  best  results  we  have  ever  obtained  trom  any  cross  ot 
thorough-breds,  was  that  of  the  Suffolk  upon  the  Essex.  One 
case,  which  was  almost  a  marvel,  I  will  give  for  example.  It  is 
that  of  a  litter  which  was  farrowed  the  16th  clay  of  March,  and 
fed  from  the  following  1st  of  October  until  the  24th  of  December, 
which  made  them  nine  months  and  eight  days  old  when  killed. 
The  weight  of  the  largest  one  was  402,  and  not  one  of  them 
weighed  less  than  300.  The  pigs  run  upon  the  farm,  being  kept  in 
a  growing  and  thriving  condition  until  October,  when  we  took 
them  up  and  forced  them  along,  as  the  result  shows. 


84  8WINE    HUSK\M'i:\  . 

"This  marked  improvement  upon  either  bleeds  in  the  first  CMS.S 
is  probably  the   result  of  uniting   their  excellent  characteristics, 
which  seem  to  be  more  fully  developed,  and  stron-er,  th:m  in 
either  original.   It  is  a  fact,  at  least,  that  the  feeding  and  maturing 
qualities  are  more  or  less  improved  in  tin    mi.-s.     N«i;h»i    i>  the 
style  or  beauty  lost  in  the  cross,  ior  the  symmetry  and  proportion 
are  still  retained.    The  color  is  generally  black  and  white ;  some- 
times one  pip  will  be  either  ail  black  or  all  white,  but  usuai.y  tl.<  \ 
are  sheeted — that  is,  each  spread  in  large  patches,  and  very  distinct 
It  is  very  seldom  that  we  see  a  *  speckled '  pig  among  th<>mujv 
bred  crosses;  there  is  generally  a  foreign  mixture  when  th 
cur.    One  peculiar  feature  with  the  color  ot  this  cross  is,  thauinva 
riably  the  black  is  in  excess  upon  the  hind  part  of  the  animal, 
while  the  white  will  predominate  upon  its  fore  parts.    I  hav. 
them  one-half  pure  black  and  the  other  hall  pure  white,  \\ith  the 
dividing  line  where  the  colors  meet  forming  a  circle  around  the 
body  at  the  middle.    The  peculiar  marking  makes  quite  an  attrac- 
tive contrast 

14  We  also  found  that  the  Berkshire  and  Essei  make  an  excel  i.-nt 
cross  for  feeding  purposes.  ABE  principle,  i  do  not  consider  t 
advisable  to  cross  the  improved  Berkshire  with  any  other,  on  tln-ir 
own  account,  but  prefer  rather  to  keep  that  breed  distinct  and  up  to 
the  mark  by  occasionally  renewing  with  a  foreign  blood  ot  its  own 
kind.  By  foreign  blood,  I  mean  that  ot  a.  distant  or  unrelated  tami- 
ly.  They  are  a  standard  breed,  very  near  perfection  in  themselves, 
possessing  qualities  that  cannot  be  very  much  improved  upon 
without  affecting  the  combination  that  constitutes  the  Berkshire, 
and  stamps  them  with  a  character  wholly  their  own,  and  which  only 
requires  to  be  kept  to  the  ideal  of  their  style  and  perfection  to  sat- 
isfy the  requirements  ot  almost  every  class,  condition,  and  locality. 
The  true  well  bred  Berkshire  has  the  stamp  of  tne  thorough-bred, 
and  possesses  the  merits  required  for  its  purpose,  and  great  pains 
should  be  taken  to  perpetuate  the  purity  of  that  blood.  How- 
ever, when  it  is  necessary  or  advisable  to  cross  them,  it  should  be 
mule  with  the  Essex,  whenever  practicable.  The  result  of  a  sin- 
gle cross  will  always  give  satisfaction,  the  produce  being  such  as 
will  teed  quick  and  mature  sooner  than  the  pure  bred  Berk- 
shire, and  the  pork  is  second  to  none  that  goes  to  market.  The 
general  style  and  appearance  of  the  animals  wil',  lie  similar,  except 
in  the  markings ;  some  will  be  more  or  less  spotted,  some  marked 
like  the  Berkshire,  some  partially  marked,  and  some  all  black. 
This  cross,  continued  upon  itself,  wilt  lose  its  identity  with  either 
breed,  and  eventually  will  result  in  a  lot  of  mongrels. 


RELATIVE  MERIT.  85 

"Upon  the  common  kinds  the  Berkshire  will  do  much  good,  and 
bring  out  a  great  improvement,  but  is  not  equal  to  the  Suffolk  or 
Essex  in  this  respect.  Of  course,  there  are  other  breeds  which  will 
improve  the  common  hog,  but  1  know  of  none  to  be  compared  to 
the  three  above  mentioned,  from  the  fact  of  their  being  pure  and 
standard  breeds,  that  have  come  down  hi  the  same  line  for  genera- 
tions, and  established  distinct  qualities  and  characteristics  that  are 
transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another  with  as  much  exact- 
ness and  certainty  as  can  be  found  in  any  class  of  the  animal 
kind.  And  the  tact  that  they  are  capable  of  stamping  upon  their 
progeny  the  desirable  points  they  possess,  and  reproduce  them- 
selves, as  it  were,  with  almost  a  positive  certainty,  is  what  gives 
them  such  great  value  as  improvers  of  our  stock. 

"  I  have  said  that  1  believe  certain  crosses  of  the  thorough-breds 
to  be  superior  to  either  of  the  full  bloods,  for  feeding  purposes. 
The  question  may  be  asked,  why  not  continue  the  breeding  from 
these  crosses  ? 

"  The  fact  is  this,  as  1  have  before  stated,  after  the  first  cross, 
the  identity  of  the  breed  is  lost,  and  with  it  the  power  to  transmit 
Us  particular  type  is  correspondingly  reduced,  and  by  continuing 
in  the  same  line  we  lose  all  trace  of  the  original.  By  using  a 
thorough-bred  upon  the  cross,  of  course,  we  produce  equally  as 
good  results  each  time.  For  teeding  purposes,  and  by  a  continua- 
tion of  this  practice,  a  superior  class  of  pork-makers  will  always 
be  obtaineo. 

"And  so,  it  one  has  a  number  of  breeding  sows  of  the  common 
sort,  let  him  procure  a  thorough-bred  male,  and  I  will  guarantee 
that  the  result  of  the  first  cross  will  pay  all  the  cost.  But  because 
$  lot  ot  very  good  animals  has  been  obtained  from  this  course,  do 
not  select  your  next  male  breeder  from  them,  or  the  good  already 
gained  will  be  lost.  But  continue  to  use  a  thorough- bred  male 
upon  the  produce,  and  those  that  have  not  tried  it  before  will 
wonder  at  the  rapid  improvement  of  their  stock,  and  why  they 
have  been  so  long  behind  the  age  of  improvement  and  advance- 
ment." 


RAISING   AND   FATTENING 
SWINE. 


THE   BOAR.  89 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE  BOAR— HOW  TO  CHOOSE,  AND  HOW  TO  KEEP 

HIM. 

To  claim  that  success  in  swine-breeding  depends  upon 
the  proper  selection  of  a  boar,  might  not  be  wholly  cor- 
rect, but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  many  failures  in  the  busi- 
ness have  been  in  a  large  degree  due  to  mistakes  made  at 
the  beginning  in  the  choice  of  breeding  animals,  especially 
males. 

However  good  the  sows  of  a  herd  may  be,  the  good 
qualities  of  the  stock  quickly  deteriorate  if  inferior  boars 
are  used,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the  offspring  of  infe- 
rior sows  can  be  rapidly  improved  in  form  and  quality, 
by  using  well  bred  boars. 

It  is  no  longer  disputed  by  persons  familiar  with  the 
principles  of  improved  breeding,  that  the  male  paient 
mostly  determines  the  outward  form  and  structure,  while 
the  female  chiefly  determines  the  internal  structure  of 
the  offspring,  a  somewhat  striking  illustration  of  which 
is  afforded  in  the  breeding  together  of  an  ass  and  a  mare, 
the  produce  of  which  is»a  mule,  and  the  mule  is  essen- 
tially, with  slight  modifications,  an  ass.  A  she  ass  bred 
to  a  stallion,  produces  the  hhrny,  which  is  essentially  a 
modified  horse,  the  mule  and  the  hinny  each  having  the 
outward  form,  muscular  structure,  locomotive  organs, 
and  voice  of  its  sire. 

Assuming  that  ttase  premises  are  correct,  it  must  be 
apparent  to  the  breeder  and  farmer,  that  the  judicious 
selection  of  a  boar  is  of  prime  importance,  and  that  suc- 
cess is  not  assured  in  this  branch  of  his  business  with- 
out it. 

Among  the  prominent  characteristics  of  the  boar  should 
be  a  fine  external  form,  which  is  the  result  of  a  superior 


90  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

internal  organism  ;  a  short,  broad  fair,  with  round  heavy 
under  jaw,  and  thick,  short  neck,  indicate  strong  vitality 
and  assimilating  powers,  two  functions  requisite  in  every 
first-class,  meat-producing  animal;  width  between  tin- 
fore  legs,  and  large  girth  immediately  behind  them,  de- 
notes room  for  large  and  active  lungs,  the  very  founda- 
tion of  any  animal.  Ribs  that  are  long  and  well  sprung 
outward  from  the  back,  show  capacity  of  stomach.  Tin- 
broad  loin  and  well  developed  ham  are  signs  of  a<  tiu- 
kidneys.  A  clean,  fine,  and  elastic  skin,  covered  witli 
soft,  lively  hair,  free  from  bristles,  denotes  a  healthy  liver, 
and  freedom  from  internal  fever.  A  fine  muzzle  and 
limbs,  clean,  small  joints,  and  standing  square  up  on  the 
feet,  denote  solidity,  strength,  and  firmness  of  the  ani- 
mal's framework ;  while  the  dished,  or  concave  face,  and 
slightly  drooping  ear,  are  unerring  signs  of  an  easy 
keeper,  and  a  quiet,  contented  disposition. 

These  are  some  of  the  features  demanded  in  a  good 
boar,  and  such  an  animal  in  perfect  condition  will  not  be 
sluggish  and  clumsy,  but  "have  a  lively  animated  appear- 
ance, and  move  about  freely  and  nimbly,  unless  kept  in 
too  close  confinement  on  too  much  fattening  food. 

The  herd,  or  family  of  hogs  from  which  it  is  designed 
to  select  a  boar,  should  be  closely  scanned,  and  if  the 
animals  show  imiformity  of  breeding,  good  forms  and 
constitutions,  with  even  feeding  qualities,  it  is  a  safe  one 
to  select  breeders  from ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  weedy 
herd,  wherein  no  two  animals  are  alike,  should  be  given 
a  wide  berth. 

It  is  essential  to  choose  a  boar  in  some  measure  with 
reference  to  the  style  of  females  it  is  desired  to  cross  him 
on,  with  a  view  to  having  deficient  points  in  the  sows  cor- 
rected by  the  boar  in  the  offspring.  Should  the  sows  bo 
light  in  the  ham  or  shoulder,  the  boar  should  be  especially 
good  there  ;  sows  inclined  to  be  razor-backed,  should  be 
bred  to  a  boar  with  broad  back,  and  well  sprung  ribs.  If 


THE   BOAR.  91 

the  sows  arc  too  coarse  about  the  legs,  neck,  head,  and 
ears,  attention  should  be  paid  to  securing  a  boar  with 
short  neck,  fine  ear,  dish  face,  fine  bone,  and  heavy  jowls. 
If  too  "light  and  airy,"  too  far  from  the  ground,  too 
active,  too  restless  and  uneasy,  the  opposite  should  be 
prominent  characteristics  of  the  boar.  He  should,  in  a 
majority  of  cases,  be  selected  from  a  family  or  strain  that 
is,  and  should  himseli  be,  somewhat  smaller  and  more 
compact  than  animals  upon  which  he  is  to  be  crossed,  and 
in  the  swine  herd,  as  in  all  domestic  stock,  constitution 
is  of  prime  importance,  and  no  animal  without  broad  and 
deep  fore-quarters  has  it. 

He  should  be  pure,  of  such  breed  as  the  owner  may 
deem  best,  for  if  not  pure,  he  cannot  be  depended  on  to 
stamp  his  own  qualities  on  his  offspring,  as  none  buf 
thorough-breds  will  invariably  do  so.  The  boar  of  mixed 
and  unknown  breeding  is  to  be  shunned  as  a  snare  and  a 
delusion.  If  the  Berkshires  or  a  Berkshire  cross  is  pro* 
ferred,  a  pure  Berkshire  boar  should  be  used.  If  the" 
Essex  seems  most  desirable,  use  a  pure  Essex  boar ;  or  it 
the  Poland-China  cross  promises  the  best  results,  use  a 
pure  Poland-China  boar.  Do  the  same  with  any  breed 
that  may  be  preferred,  and  success  is  certain  ;  but  to  use 
a  boar  that  is  a  mixture  of  several  breeds,  however  pure 
they  may  individually  be,  is  to  progress  backward. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  many  who  pay  a  liberal 
price  to  obtain  a  boar  that  suits  them,  afterward  treat 
him  in  such  a  way  that  they  derive  but  small  benefit  from 
the  investment.  One  of  the  two  most  common  modes  of 
mistreatment  is,  to  confine  him  in  a  close  pen,  where  he  is 
deprived  of  exercise  and  fed  upon  the  richest  and  most 
fattening  food  the  establishment  affords  :  lack  of  activity 
and  of  virility  are  the  results.  The  other  mode  is,  to  turn 
him  with  an  unlimited  number  of  sows,  gilts,  and  stock 
hogs,  to  fight,  and  fret,  and  tease,  until  he  becomes  the 
shabbiest,  the  most  ungainly,  unthrifty  hog  on  the  place. 


92  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

Either  of  these  extremes  must  be  avoided,  and  a  more 
rational  method  pursued,  or  the  best  results  cannot  be 
secured.  While  too  close  confinement  is  bad,  it  is  not 
so  bad  as  to  allow  a  boar  to  roam  at  will  among  the  other 
hogs  of  a  farm,  where  he  is  as  much  out  of  place  as  a 
stallion  would  be  if  turned  loose  with  a  herd  of  horses. 
He  should  be  kept  in  a  comfortable  pen,  with  a  lot  or 
pasture  adjoining,  and  supplied  with  a  variety  of  nutri- 
tious food,  which  means  something  more  than  dry  corn, 
with  an  occasional  drink  of  diluted  dish-water.  His  con- 
dition should  always  be  that  of  thrift,  and  vigorous 
health,  not  too  fat,  nor  yet  so  lean  that  as  a  barrow  he 
would  be  considered  unfit  for  pork.  If  too  fat,  he  will 
be  clumsy,  slow,  and  in  no  wise  a  sure  getter.  As  to  the 
age  at  which  he  should  begin  service,  we  have,  aftei  con- 
siderable observation  and  experience,  come  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  it  is  unwise  to  permit  the  boar  to  be  with  a  BOW 
at  all  until  at  least  seven  months  old,  and  then  only  in 
exceptional  cases  and  very  sparingly.  Immature  sires 
cannot  be  expected  to  generate  vigorous  progeny.  At 
a  year  old,  moderate  service  will  not  injure  him,  and 
properly  kept,  he  should  be  at  his  best  as  a  sire,  when 
from  eighteen  months  to  five  years  old,  when  he  is  matured 
and  developed,  and  has  every  ml  vantage  over  a  half-grown 
immature  pig  ;  the  finest,  strongest  litters  are  invariably 
obtained  from  large  old  sows,  bred  to  aged  boars. 

We  well  understand  that  it  is  of  little  use  to  recom- 
mend farmers,  who  raise  or  purchase  fine  boar  pigs,  to 
keep  them  until  a  year  and  a  half  or  two  years  old,  before 
using  them,  as  not  one  in  ten  thousand  would  do  so,  yet 
those  who  properly  keep  their  boars  that  length  of  time, 
will  find  the  value  of  their  breeding  greatly  enhanced. 
Aged  boars  are  generally  looked  upon  as  unpleasant  ani- 
mals to  keep,  especially  if  they  have  become  vicious  and 
disposed  to  use  their  tusks — a  view  in  which  the  author 
himself  shares  somewhat — but  they  are  certainly  less  dan- 


THE    BOAR.  93 

gcrous  and  troublesome  than  the  gentlest  bull  or  stallion, 
while,  of  course,  none  of  them  are  desirable,  or  intended 
for,  household  pets  or  door-yard  ornaments. 

A  pen  or  fence  sufficiently  high  and  strong  to  restrain 
the  other  hogs  of  the  farm,  cannot  be  depended  on  to 
keep  the  boar  in  his  place,  and  if  opportunity  offers,  he 
will  soon  become  unruly;  consequently,  it  is  much  the 
best  to  keep  him,  from  the  first,  in  an  enclosure  which 
will  afford  him  no  practice  in  the  art  of  breaking  out. 

if  his  quarters  are  isolated  from  those  of  other  hogs, 
especially  sows,  and  sow  pigs — some  of  which  are  likely 
to  be  in  heat  most  of  the  time — he  will  usually  be  quiet 
and  gentle, — in  fact,  a  pretty  well  behaved  hog,  though 
much  depends  upon  his  natural  disposition,  and  more 
upon  the  treatment  given  him. 

With  a  fair  chance,  some  of  the  first  litters  will  enable 
his  owner  to  judge  ot  his  merits  as  a  sire,  which,  if  satis- 
factory, will  make  it  worth  while  to  keep  him  for  several 
seasons.  Unless  certain  of  doing  very  much  better,  we 
would  not  hesitate  to  breed  him  to  his  own  pigs,  even 
though  we  consider  indiscriminate  in-and-in  breeding  as 
reprehensible  in  the  extreme.  We  advise  even  this  cross, 
only  when  the  parents  are  both  healthy,  and  it  is  desired 
to  fix  and  retain  in  the  offspring  certain  points,  or  quali- 
ties, that  are  of  great  value,  and  prominent  in  both  boar 
and  sow.  Turned  with  a  sow  in  heat  until  one  service 
is  given,  she  will  have  as  many,  and  as  good  pigs  as  there 
would  be  if  the  boar  was  permitted  to  chase  and  worry 
her  for  three  days  and  nights.  The  most  experienced 
breeders  concede  this,  and  many  will  not  allow  but  a 
single  service. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  bulk  of  the  hog  crop  is  pro- 
duced by  farmers  who  breed  less  rather  than  over  a  dozen 
sows,  on  an  average,  at  any  one  season  of  the  year.  To 
keep  a  matured  boar  in  the  best  condition,  is  felt  to  be 
quite  an  expense  by  one  man  who  has  but  a  few  sows,  and 


94  SWIM      111  S15ANDKY. 

where  three  or  four  farmers  liu  in  proximity  to 
other,  we  think  it  much  the  best  and  cheapest  plan  I«T 
them  to  jointly  own  and  keep  one  strictly  good  boar,  in- 
stead of  each  keeping,  wholly  at  his  own  expense,  one 
that  he  thinks  will  do,  though  not  so  good  as  IK  would 
like,  if  the  first  cost  and  subsequent  expense  and  trou hit- 
were  less. 

Properly  managed,  one  boar  would,  in  many  cases, 
answer  every  purpose  as  well  as  a  half  dozen,  for  that 
number  of  small  farmers,  and  if  his  cost  and  keep  irere 
shared  by  all,  it  would  scarcely  be  felt,  ami  at  tin  same 
time  the  temptation  to  use  some  mongrel,  or  immature 
pig,  would  be  removed. 

Among  the  benefits  resulting  from  this  method  would 
be,  the  use  of  a  good  boar,  matured,  and  fitted  for  good 
service  ;  an  improved  class  of  pigs,  and  a  generous  rival- 
ry, encouraging  each  of  his  owners  to  keep  a  better  grade 
of  sows,  under  improved  and  more  profitable  conditions. 

In  sparsely  settled  neighborhoods,  or  where  too  many 
sows  were  to  be  bred,  it  would  not  be  so  practicable  ;  but 
where  possible,  it  would  be  a  little  of  that  much-talked  of 
"cooperation  among  farmers,"  which,  when  really  prac- 
tised, as  well  as  preached,  will  indeed  be  found  one  of 
the  touchstones  of  success. 

When  the  time  arrives  for  him  to  be  superseded  as  the 
head  of  the  herd,  and  it  is  desired  to  make  him  a  barrow, 
it  can  be  done  by  one  active  man  operating  as  follows : 
After  drawing  up  one  hind  leg,  and  fastening  it  securely 
to  a  post,  or  stake,  fasten  another  rope  around  the  upper 
jaw,  back  to  the  tusks,  draw  it  tightly,  and  fasten  it  to 
another  stake  ;  in  this  position  the  animal  can  offer  no 
serious  resistance.  The  cut  should  be  low  down,  and  as 
small  as  possible  ;  the  low  cut  will  afford  a  ready  means  of 
escape  for  all  extraneous  matter,  and  allow  the  wound 
to  keep  itself  clean,  there  being  no  sack,  or  pocket,  left 
to  hold  the  pus  formed  during  the  healing  process.  It 


THE   SOW   AND   HER   PIGS.  95 

| 

is  not  best  to  perform  this  operation  when  the  boar  is 
very  fat,  or  the  weather  too  warm,  as  the  risk  is  much 
greater.  If  castrated  early  in  the  season,  and  kept  on 
gjnss  during  the  summer,  the  flesh,  when  he  is  made  fat, 
will  be  but  little  more  rank  than  that  of  other  hogs.  Kept 
with  other  hogs,  if  quarrelsome,  there  is  danger  of  his 
doing  them  great  injury  with  his  tusks,  and  hence  it  is 
desirable  to  fatten  a  stag  hog  by  himself.  It  is  at  this 
period  that  the  old  boar's  true  proportions  will  show 
themselves,  as  he  will  take  on  fat  very  rapidly,  and  pre- 
sent a  greatly  improved  appearance  ;  but  when  sold,  the 
buyer  will  quite  probably  insist  on  paying  for  the  "  stag" 
only  two-thirds  the  price  of  other  hogs,  which,  in  many 
cases,  we  have  considered  entirely  too  great  a  deduction. 


CHAPTER    XI. 
THE    SOW  AND    HER  PIGS. 

The  measure  of  success  attained  by  those  who  raise 
hogs,  depends  in  no  small  degree  upon  the  judicious  se- 
lection, for  breeding  purposes,  of  sows  that  are  best  cal- 
culated, in  their  form,  and  general  make  up,  to  give  birth 
to,  and  to  nourish  for  several  weeks,  a  reasonable  number 
of  well-formed,  thrifty,  vigorous  pigs.  The  sow  is  the 
laboratory,  wherein  are  developed  the  germs  of  the  future 
herd,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  it  is  plain  that  this 
laboratory,  or,  if  we  may  so  call  it,  this  machine-shop, 
must,  to  furnish  the  best  results,  be  as  near  perfection  as 
possible.  She  should  be  selected  from  a  stock,  or  family, 
in  which  fertility  is  a  characteristic ;  for  this  essential 
quality  is  hereditary,  though  lacking  in  numerous  strains 
of  the  various  breeds.  The  most  promising  pig  at  six 


06  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

or  eight  weeks,  may  fall  far  short  of  being  so  promising 
at  six  or  eight  months ;  and,  for  this  reason,  whore  it  is 
practicable,  it  is  better  to  defer  the  selection  of  sows  for 
breeding  purposes,  until  they  have  made  considerable 
growth,  and  exhibit  prominently  certain  characteristics 
which  they  should  possess,  and  enable  the  breeder  to 
form  a  more  nearly  correct  judgment  as  to  what  their 
forms  will  be  when  they  have  matured. 

At  this  time,  she  should  appear  to  be  of  a  form  known 
as  "rangy,"  t.  e.,  the  opposite  of  compact,  of  loose  and 
open  build,  long,  yet  quite  broad,  on  the  back,  with 
short  neck  and  head,  fine  ear,  heavy  jowl — sure  indica- 
tions of  an  easy  keeper,  wide  between  the  fore  legs,  deep 
sides,  and  heavy  hams,  well  let  down  on  the  gam  I*  re  1 
joint.  She  should  be  large  and  roomy,  (in  some  respects 
rather  the  opposite  of  the  boar),  from  healthy  stocky  * 
greedy  feeder,  and  of  great  vitality,  as  indicated  by  large 
^irth  buck  of  the  fore  legs,  and  a  robust  apj>earance  gen- 
erally. Coarsen3ss  io  allowable  in  the  sow,  much  more 
than  in  the  boar,  especially  if  she  has  great  room  for  car- 
rying a  large  litter,  with  indications  of  being  a  good 
suckler,  as  shown  by  having  at  least  twelve  prominent, 
well  developed  teats,  or  "  dugs."  The  venerable  Paschal  1 
Morris,  of  Philadelphia,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  in- 
telligent breeders  and  improvers  of  swine  in  the  United 
States,  wrote:  "I  have  always  found  that  a  hog  with  a 
dish-face,  short  nose,  small  head,  and  wide  between  the 
eyes,  is  an  easy,  quiet  feeder.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
long,  large  head,  indicates,  in  a  general  way,  a  hard,  un- 
easy feeder,  and  a  great  consumer/' 

Sows,  well  kept,  will,  in  some  cases,  come  in  keat  when 
not  more  than  three  months  old  ;  but,  in  all  such  cases, 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  separated  from,  or  out 
of  reach  of,  any  boar  piirs  on  the  place.  Eight  months 
is  as  young  as  it  is  judicious  or  proper  to  breed  them, 
and  we  would  much  prefer  to  have  them  a  vear  old  before 


THE   SOW    AND    HER   PIGS.  97 

letting  to  the  boar.  In  all  breeds,  and  especially  those 
noted  for  early  maturity,  the  vitality  of  the  young  animal 
is  taxed  to  its  utmost  in  making  a  rapid  and  vigorous 
growth,  and  to  impose  upon  it,  at  the  same  period,  the 
further  burden  of  production,  tends  to  make  a  failure  of 
both.  The  sow  not  being  matured,  it  is  unnatural  to 
expect  the  perfection  in  the  offspring  that  the  dam  may 
possess ;  nature  is,  at  the  same  time,  perfecting  the  unde- 
veloped mother,  and  promoting  the  growth  of  the  young, 
and  the  result  is,  that  both  are  losers,  and  deficient  at 
maturity,  and  the  mother  can  never  recover  from  this 
division  and  deficit  of  nature's  work. 

A  comparison  of  the  litters  from  matured  sows,  with 
those  of  others,  that  were  mere  pigs  themselves  when, 
bred,  will  furnish  a  practical  illustration  of  this ;  the  pigs 
from  the  large  old  sows,  will  be  more  in  number,  and  fre- 
quently double  the  size  of  the  others,  at  a  month  old  ; 
and  with  the  same  care,  they  will  not  unfrequently  weigh 
50  per  cent,  more,  at  nine  or  twelve  months  old.  For 
this  reason,  sows  that  have  proven  themselves  extra  valu- 
able as  breeders  and  sucklers,  should  be  retained  as  among 
the  prized  animals  of  the  farm. 

Those  who  pursue  the  plan  of  obtaining  but  one  litter 
from  a  sow,  and  then  converting  her  into  pork,  can  never 
compete  for  size,  style,  and  vigor,  with  those  who  raise 
stock  from  vigorous  sows,  from  eighteen  months  to  six 
years  old. 

Usually,  when  not  with  pig,  or  suckling,  a  sow  will  be 
in  heat  about  three  days  out  of  twenty-one,  or  once  in 
three  weeks,  and  when  she  is  to  be  bred,  she  should  be 
free  from  fever,  her  system  cooled  and  cleansed  by  a  va- 
riety of  food  and  loosening  slops. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  valuable  sows  have 
been  utterly  ruined  for  breeding  purposes,  by  over-feeding 
on  corn  and  meal,  which,  alone,  possess  too  much  heat- 
producing  and  too  little  bone  and  muscle-forming  mate- 


98  8WINE    HUSBANDRY. 

rial  to  supply  the  needs  of  the  animal  economy.  On  this 
account,  sows  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  with  fatten- 
ing hogs  kept  on  corn,  but  in  pasture,  and  allow*.  1  a 
plenty  of  slop,  made  of  equal  parts  of  shorts,  corn  im-al. 
and  wheat  bran. 

The  main  crop  of  pigs  should  come  in  the  warm  days 
of  April,  and  that  it  may  be  so,  sows  should  be  bml  u 
near  the  middle  of  December  as  may  be  ;  though  in  tin- 
States  not  too  far  north,  and  where  the  best  of  care  can 
be  furnished  at  farrowing  time,  December  1st  is  not  too 
early  for  old  sows,  and  December  10th  for  young  sows. 
Old  sows  will  carry  their  pigs  112  or  possibly  115  days, 
and  young  sows  will  sometimes  farrow  their  first  litt<  r  in 
from  100  to  10G  days  from  the  date  of  service. 

It  is  generally  believed  among  breeders,  that  a  sow 
turned  to  the  boar  on  the  first  symptoms  of  heat,  will 
have  mostly  sow  pigs,  and  that  if  she  is  not  served  until 
the  period  of  heat  is  about  passed,  she  will  have  mostly 
boar  pigs. 

While  carrying  her  pigs,  plenty  of  exercise,  generous 
supplies  of  not  too  rich  food,  with  comfortable  quarters, 
are  indispensable  to  success,  and  must  not  be  overlooked. 
To  allow  sows  to  run  among  cattle,  horses,  or  colts,  ex- 
poses them  in  various  ways  to  injuries  that  may  cause  the 
loss  of  valuable  litters,  especially  if  the  sows  are  heavy 
and  awkward. 

It  is  bad  policy  to  have  sows  fat  at  the  time  of  taking 
the  boar,  as  there  are  few  cases  in  which  a  sow,  thin  in 
flesh,  approaching  to  leanness,  at  that  time,  does  not  do 
better  than  one  that  is  fat,  or  in  what  is  called  respecta- 
ble show  condition.  After  getting  with  pig,  a  sow  fat- 
tens very  readily,  and  if  fed  too  much  strong  food,  is 
likely  to  become  pork-fat,  have  smaller  pigs,  and  do  badly 
in  farrowing. 

As  the  time  approaches  for  the  pigs  to  appear,  the  sow 
should  be  separated  from  any  other  hogs,  and  placed  in  a 


TY 

THE   SOW    AND    HER-^!l5^  99 

sheltered,  yet  sunny  pen,  provided  with  some  short  hay 
or  straw,  out  of  which  she  will  arrange  her  nest.  If  given 
a  large  quantity  of  bedding,  she  will  make  her  nest  too 
deep,  forming  a  sort  of  pit,  into  which  the  pigs  will  roll, 
and  surely  be  crushed.  A  shallow  nest  is  much  the  best, 
and  many  fine  pigs,  sometimes  even  whole  litters,  have 
been  lost  by  giving  the  sow  a  too  generous  supply  of 
bedding  material.  In  warm  weather,  but  little,  if  any, 
need  be  given,  and  in  cold  weather,  the  nest  should  be 
thoroughly  protected  on  the  outside,  and  made  so  com- 
fortable that  a  great  pile  of  hay  or  straw  will  not  be  nec- 
essary to  prevent  the  pigs  from  becoming  chilled.  About 
six  or  eight  inches  from  the  floor,  and  the  same  distance 
from  the  sides  of  the  pen,  near  the  nest,  a  scantling,  rail, 
or  pole,  should  be  fastened  ;  this  will  prevent  the  sow  from 
crushing  the  little  pigs  between  herself  and  the  wall. 

A  sow  well  fed  at  the  time  of  pigging,  will  usually  lie 
more  quietly,  and  endanger  her  pigs  less  by  frequently  get- 
ting up  and  lying  down,  than  a  hungry  one.  Some- 
times young  or  small  sows  appear  to  be  in  so  much  misery, 
that  they  cannot  be  quiet,  but  if  they  have  been  petted 
and  kindly  treated,  they  will  allow  an  attendant  to  re- 
move the  pigs  as  fast  as  they  come,  which  may  be  the 
means  of  saving  many  of  them  that  might  otherwise  be 
crushed  or  trampled  to  death. 

Many  good  farmers  have  been  aggravated  beyond  meas- 
ure, by  finding  a  favorite  brood-sow  in  the  act  of  destroy- 
ing her  litter  of  choice  pigs,  and  none  but  those  who  have 
had  such  bitter  experience,  can  realize  how  discouraging 
it  is.  My  ideas  on  this  subject  are  so  nearly  identical 
with  those  of  Mr.  A.  C.  Moore,  the  well-known  breeder 
of  Poland-Chinas,  that  I  will  use  his  own  language  to  ex- 
press them  : 

"  The  first  losses  of  our  litters  are  enormous.  By  improper  care 
of  the  sow,  and  unsuitable  places  and  surroundings  for  littering, 
many  persons  yearly  sacrifice  their  gains  in  swine  growing.  Cos- 


100  SWINE  in  M;A\  DRY. 

tiveness  and  its  attendant  evils,  are  among  the  impel li 
ferocity  in  the  sow.    *  Coles  Diseases  of  Domestic  Animals *  says  it 
is  because  they  arc  kept  from  earth,  coal,  ashes,  etc.,  and  :i 
allowing  them  as  much  room  as  possible,  feeding  them  i 
grass,  sod,  rotten  wood,  charcoal,  ashes,  etc.,  and  says,  after  ]» 
gin-r, '  feed  light,  on  light  food  for  a  few  days,'  and  I  wish  t«.  <  m 
phdiise  this  last  quotation.    TJis  appliss,  of  course,  more  particu- 
larly to  animals  that  have  boen  kept  on  board  floors.     1 
believe  that  a  sow  will  devour  her  young  unless  extremely  co-iiv.-, 
amounting  almost  to  a  state  of  frenzy— though  having  d< 
once,  she  may  repeat  the  act  without  being  in  that  condition. 
Breeding  sows  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  together  in  the  same 
yard  when  pigs  are  expected;  tlic  taste  of  blood  seems  infe.  iioU,. 
and  opportunities  often  occur  when  costive  animals  will  begin  by 
eating  de  id  pigs,  or  first  destroy  part  of  another's  litter,  and  are 
thereby  led  to  afterwards  destroy  their  own. 

"Don't  do  toy  much  for  tliem  just  before  littering,  and  feed 
nothing  but  thin  slop  for  three  or  four  days  after.  *  *  *  With 
quiet,  proper  feed,  and  a  little  care  of  some  one  at  the  proper  time, 
a  very  small  per  cent  will  be  lest  in  breeding.  Insist  on  every- 
thing and  everybody  being  quiet  about  your  breeding  pens." 

When  wj  find  a  sow  destroying  her  pigs,  or  showing  a 
disposition  to  do  so,  we  saturate  a  small  woolen  cloth 
with  kerosene,  and  carefully  moisten  the  hair  of  the  pigs 
with  it,  but  are  cautious  to  not  get  much  of  it  on  their 
tender  skins — and  we  usually  find  that  the  kerosene  dress- 
ing spoils  the  sow's  relish  for  raw  pig. 

The  feverish  condition  of  the  sow  at  farrowing  time, 
will  cause  thirst,  and  a  plenty  of  fresh  water  should  be  kept 
within  her  reach,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  she  is 
being  kept  on  sloppy  food,  as  this  will  not  prevent  her 
needing  water,  any  more  than  a  person's  having  soup  at 
meal-time  will  prevent  his  wanting  water.  For  making  a 
plenty  of  healthful  milk,  skimmed  milk,  wheat  bran,  and 
shorts  mixed,  are  most  excellent,  and  no  careful  breeder, 
anxious  to  do  the  best  by  his  litters  of  pigs,  should  neg- 
lect to  have  a  supply  accessible  for  use  when  his  sows  are 
suckling.  We  have  had  very  favorable  results  from  feed- 
ing chopped  (coarsely  ground)  rye,  soaked  from  24  to  36 


THE    SOW    AND    HER  PIC.S.  101 

.hours,  but  not  allowed  to  become  too  sour  before  feeding 
and  consider  it  as  near  perfection  in  the  way  of  a  succu- 
lent, nutritious  mess,  for  a  sow  suckling  a  number  of 
greedy,  growing  pigs. 

For  the  first  weeks  of  a  pig's  life,  the  mother's  milk  is 
its  drink  as  well  as  food,  and  therefore,  in  caring  for  suck- 
ling sows,  it  should  be  the  aim  to  so  feed  them,  that  the 
largest  possible  quantity  of  milk,  of  only  medium  rich- 
ness, will  be  furnished,  instead  of  a  limited  supply  of  that 
which  is  extremely  rich,  the  latter  being  less  healthful, 
and  more  liable  to  cause  fever,  cough,  constipation,  and 
unsatisfactory  growth. 

Grass,  or  other  green  food,  is  not  to  be  omitted  from 
the  bill  of  fare,  and  Red  Clover  is  the  standard  green  crop 
for  swine,  though  Blue  Grass  (Poa  pratensis)  is  by  some 
considered  preferable,  but  either  is  most  excellent.  It  is 
difficult  to  satisfactorily  manage  the  pasturing  of  several 
sows  with  pigs  in  the  same  field,  on  account  of  the  larger 
pigs  stealing  from,  and  robbing  the  smaller  ones  of  their 
share  of  milk,  causing  them  to  become  stunted  and  very 
uneven  in  size.  The  only  remedy  is  to  separate  them. 

When  pigs  are  three  weeks  old,  they  will  usually  begin 
to  eat,  if  suitable  food  is  placed  where  they  can  get  it,  and 
a  small  trough  should  be  placed  in  a  part  of  the  pen  or 
lot,  inaccessible  to  the  sow,  and  into  this  about  three  or 
four  times  a  day,  for  several  days,  a  little  sweet  milk  can 
be  poured — whatever  they  will  drink  up  clean,  but  not 
more,  increasing  the  quantity  as  they  grow  older,  when 
some  shelled  corn,  soaked  in  water  twenty-four  hours,  or 
more,  should  be  given,  and,  if  convenient,  sour  milk, 
corn-meal  mush,  scalded  bran  with  shorts,  and  such  nour- 
ishing food  as  will  make  them  a  healthful  variety. 

Mr.  Moore,  before  quoted  in  this  chapter,  has  probably 
handled  with  success  as  many  pigs  as  any  man  living, 
and  gives  in  his  Swine  Journal  the  following  as  his 
method  of  feeding  them  : 


102  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

44  My  mode  of  feeding  young  pigs  is  to  provide  sufficient  board 
floor,  sheltered  from  the  hot  sun  and  the  storms,  on  which  to  place 
the  feed  troughs.  In  these  I  feed  shelled  corn,  soaked  in  1 
sunk  in  the  ground,  or  bins;  corn  is  soaked  from  24  to  48  hours, 
owing  to  the  weather.  With  the  water  that  has  soaked  the  corn, 
I  make  up  u  slop  of  ground  oats  and  com,  mixed  with  bran  and 
shorts  from  the  mill.  This  slop,  and  the  corn,  is  distributed  to  all 
the  troughs,  by  means  of  buckets — those  for  the  corn  having  holes 
in  the  bottom,  to  allow  escape  of  water.  From  the  troughs  win-re 
the  pigs  are  fed,  I  exclude  the  sows  by  means  of  bars  that  will  let 
the  pigs  pass  in  and  out  of  the  trough,  yard,  or  pen.  I  feed  the 
sows  on  an  adjoining  floor,  in  similar  troughs.  Thus,  pigs  that  are 
weaned,  and  such  as  are  yet  suckling,  but  large  enough  to  take  care 
of  themselves,  are  fed  from  the  same  troughs.  Of  course,  my 
younger  pigs,  from  two  to  four  weeks  old,  are  fed  in  the  stye  with 
the  sow — have  a  separate  trough  if  necessary,  and  are  not  turned 
into  a  herd  until  they  know  their  dam,  and  will  suckle  only  at 
home ;  but  with  all  the  time  and  care  we  can  give  to  the  "  t min- 
ing" of  young  pigs,  there  will  be  some  thieves  in  the  yards  who 
will  steal  from  another  dam  when  they  can  get  a  good  chance, 

44  All  feed  troughs  must  have  stripe  nailed  across  the  top,  to  par- 
tition off  the  feeding  room  of  each  pig.  *  *  *  In  feeding,  each  pig 
must  have  a  fair  chance  for  its  share ;  you  should  not  pour  swill 
into  one  end  of  a  trough  and  calculate  that  a  portion  of  your  pigs 
will  get  their  supply  from  the  other  end.  Notice,  and  you  will 
see  that  the  big  ones  are  always  near  the  spout  or  first  end— they 
have  learned  where  the  best  swill  is  to  be  had,  while  the  pigs  at 
the  further  end— the  little  ones— are  compelled  to  take  the  leavings 
as  it  runs  to  them,  and  are  thus  made  themselves  into  "  leavings." 
Pigs  should  never  be  fed  on  the  ground  when  it  is  dusty  or  muddy. 

11  Though  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  cooked  or  steamed  food  will 
amply  pay  for  the  cost  and  labor  of  preparation,  I  have  never 
used  it" 

While  believing  that  they  should  have  as  much  corn  as 
they  will  eat,  it  is  very  essential  to  their  rapid  growth,  that 
other  and  softer  food  be  supplied,  making  a  variety  that 
will  be  easily  digested,  and  assist  to  keep  their  appetites 
sharp. 

The  boar  pigs  maybe  castrated  when  from  two  to  eight 
weeks  old,  that  they  may  recover  from  its  effects  before 
weaning  time,  and  at  that  age,  if  help  is  not  at  hand,  it 


THE   SOW   AND   HEB   PIGS.  103 

can  easily  be  done  by  a  single  person  after  a  little  practice. 
With  the  pig  standing  on  his  head  iu  a  nail  keg,  or  some- 
thing of  similar  size  and  shape,  which  confines  him  so 
closely  as  to  prevent  much  troublesome'  resistance,  the 
operation  may  be  easily  performed.  If  flies  are  trouble- 
some, it  is  well  to  pour  some  kerosene  into  and  over  the 
wound.  A  preparation  sold  in  the  markets  as  "Frazer's 
Axle  Grease,"  is  an  excellent  salve  for  these  and  similar 
wounds  and  sores  on  any  kind  of  stock,  but  if  flies  are 
not  about,  we  do  not  use  even  this,  and  never  had  a  pig 
die  or  do  badly  from  being  castrated. 

Sows  should  be  spayed  when  somewhat  older,  say  at 
three  months,  and  there  are  probably  a  thousand  men 
who  can  do  a  tolerable  job  at  castrating  a  boar,  to  one  that 
is  competent  to  properly  spay  a  sow;  unless  it  can  be 
done  by  a  person  understanding  it,  it  is  risky  business. 
We  have  seen  an  ignoramus  ruin  a  herd  of  Berkshire 
shotes  by  spaying  them  in  the  belly  in  such  a  manner 
that,  when  they  healed  up,  their  bellies  dragged  on  the 
ground. 

Considerable  observation  leads  us  to  the  conclusion,  that 
the  only  proper  place  to  spay  is  in  the  side,  and  not  there, 
unless  by  an  expert.  Where  there  is  a  probability  of 
doing,  or  having  it  done  successfully,  we  think  it  extremely 
desirable,  as  no  hogs  keep  easier,  or  fatten  better,  than 
sows  that  have  been  properly  spayed.  (The  reader  will 
find  this  subject  treated  by  one  of  the  most  success- 
ful and  practical  veterinary  surgeons  in  the  country,  in 
the  succeeding  chapter.) 

Weaning  is  a  severe  ordeal  to  many  pigs,  but  those 
cared  for,  and  taught  to  eat  some  weeks  before,  do  not, 
as  a  rule,  appear  to  have  their  growth  noticeably  checked, 
while  others,  that  have  depended  entirely  on  the  mother's 
milk,  seem  to  have  their  growth  entirely  suspended,  some- 
times for  many  weeks. 

As  to  the  proper  time  for  weaning,  the  owner  must,  to 


104  BWINE    IITSBAXDRT. 

some  extent,  be  governed  by  surrounding  circumstances. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  wean  when  the  pigs  art-  live 
or  six  weeks  old,  and  in  other  cases  there  may  be  no  par- 
ticular reasons  for  doing  so  until  ten,  or  sometimes  twelve 
weeks  old ;  but  at  from  seven  to  ten  weeks  old,  most  pigs 
are  fit  to  be  put  away  from  the  sows.  If  they  cannot  be 
successfully  weaned  at  that  age,  it  is  difficult  to  say  when 
they  could  be.  Some  pigs  are  really  older  at  seven 
weeks  than  others  at  ten,  and  are  better  fitted  for  weaning. 

Nothing  is  so  well  calculated  to  make  them  grow  as  a 
bountiful  supply  of  sow's  milk,  and  the  pigs  that  have  a 
plenty  of  other  feed,  with  the  milk  of  a  well-slopi>ed  sow, 
for  eight  or  ton  weeks,  will  invariably  have  much  the 
start  in  growth  of  those  weaned  at  five  or  six  weeks,  no 
matter  how  much  food  and  attention  the  earlier  weaned 
pigs  may  have  had. 

If  from  the  tendency  of  a  sow  to  get  too  fat,  or  from 
other  causes,  she  is  bred  the  third  or  fourth  day  after 
farrowing,  it  is  best  to  wean  by  the  time  the  pigs  are  six 
weeks  old,  in  order  that  their  longer  sucking  may  not 
injuriously  affect  the  succeeding  litter.  If  they  have  been 
accustomed  to  eating  milk,  grain,  and  grass,  while  run- 
ning with  the  sow,  this  can  be  done  without  perceptibly 
checking  their  growth  ;  but  otherwise,  the  sudden  change 
not  infrequently  retards  it  for  several  weeks.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  that  with  swine,  as  with  all  other  stock, 
warmth  is  to  a  certain  extent  equivalent  to  food,  for  which 
reason  comfortable  shelter  and  clean,  dry  bedding,  have 
a  money  value,  as  with  these,  they  not  only  consume 
less  food,  but  grow  much  faster. 

The  sow,  in  most  cases,  will  take  the  boar  from  the 
second  to  the  fourth  day  from  farrowing,  and  if  she  is 
not  served  then,  or  fails  to  get  with  pig,  she  will  not,  as  a 
general  thing,  breed  again  until  the  pigs  have  been  weaned 
from  two  to  four  weeks — if  not  too  much  suckled  down, 
in  about  three  weeks. 


CASTRATING  AND  SPAYING.  v  105 

It  is  not  a  good  plan  to  take  all  the  pigs  from  the  sow, 
unless  one  or  two  of  them  can  be  turned  with  her  some 
hours  after,  to  draw  out  the  milk  she  will  have  at  that 
time,  and  again,  say  after  a  lapse  of  twenty-four  hours. 
The  way  preferred  by  us  is,  to  leave  about  two  of  the 
smallest  with  her  for  four  or  five  days,  and  after  that, 
leave  only  one  for  two  or  three  days  more,  by  which  time 
the  flow  of  milk  will  have  been  so  gradually  diminished, 
that  no  injury  will  result  to  the  sow  by  keeping  them 
entirely  away  from  her. 

After  weaning  pigs,  the  pasture  is  a  good  place  for  the 
sow,  and  if  a  mess  of  good  slop  is  given  her  once  a  day, 
it  will  be  fed  to  good  advantage.  When  bred  again,  she 
should  be  so  fed  and  cared  for,  as  to  gain  something  in 
flesh  every  day,  and  yet  not  become  loaded  down  with  fat 
from  the  use  of  too  much  heating  and  concentrated  food. 
If  treated  in  a  friendly  way,  she  will  be  friendly  and  well 
disposed,  and  ordinarily  come  as  near  paying  richly  for  all 
she  gets,  as  any  animal  kept  on  the  farm. 


CHAPTER    XII. 
CASTRATING    AND    SPAYING. 

The  necessity  of  castrating  the  boar  pigs,  for  pork-mak- 
ing purposes,  is  generally  admitted,  but  the  importance  of 
spaying  such  sow  pigs,  on  the  farm  or  in  the  herd,  as  are 
not  designed  for  breeders,  has  never  been  appreciated  as 
it  should,  or  as  it  is  likely  to  be,  when  the  rearing  of 
swine  is  conducted  on  such  business  principles  as  its  im- 
portance demands.  Open  sows,  running  with  other  stock 
hogs,  are  a  source  of  great  annoyance,  and  where  more 
than  two  or  three  are  kept,  there  is  scarcely  a  time  when 


106  SAVINE   HUSBANDRY. 

some  one  of  their  number  is  not  in  heat,  and  continually 
chasing  the  others,  thus  keeping  them  in  a  worried, 
fevered  condition,  extremely  prejudicial  to  growth  or 
fattening. 

If  all  are  neatly  trimmed,  this  is  avoided,  the  hogs  are 
quiet  and  restful,  and  much  time,  trouble,  and  feed  are 
saved. 

All  feeders  agree,  that  no  animals  in  the  swine-herd 
feed  more  kindly  and  profitably,  than  spayed  sows,  and 
there  are  no  buyers  who  would  not  as  soon,  or  sooner, 
have  them  than  barrows,  when  they  would  not  buy  a  lot 
of  open  sows  at  any  price.  An  open  sow,  when  fat,  of 
the  same  dimensions  externally  as  a  spayed  sow  or  bar- 
row, generally  weighs  from  ten  to  twenty  pounds  less. 

To  the  feeder,  the  buyer,  or  the  butcher,  unspayed  sows 
are  usually,  in  one  way  or  another,  a  cheat,  as  they  may 
weigh  more  than  they  are  worth  by  having  a  litter  of  pigs 
in  them,  or  may  be  utterly  destitute  of  inside  fat,  from 
having  recently  suckled  pigs  ;  in  either  case  they  are  of 
less  value  than  their  appearance  would  indicate.  Spayed 
sows  are  not  troublesome  to  their  mates,  are  as  good  as 
they  look  for  feeding  or  marketing,  and  command  in  all 
markets  such  prices  as  are  paid  for  none  but  first-class 
stock. 

There  is  no  subject  connected  with  the  live  stock  in- 
terests, upon  which  so  little  has  been  written,  or  upon 
which  it  seems  so  difficult  to  get  reliable  information  or 
directions,  as  this.  In  view  of  this  want,  we  have  had 
the  following  practical  and  explicit  directions  prepared 
by  one  of  the  most  experienced  and  successful  veterinary 
surge 3ns  in  the  country,  Dr.  T.  C.  Miles,  of  Charleston, 
Illinois,  whose  practice  in  this  branch  of  his  profession 
is  very  extensive.  Doct.  M.  says  : 

"As  to  the  time  for  castrating  boars,  I  would  say,  do 
it  whenever  most  convenient,  and  the  best  way  is  the  way 
understood  by  every  old  farmer,  unless  the  hog  is  rup- 


CASTRATING    AND   SPAYING.  107 

tured,  in  which  case  the  striffen  around  the  seed  (called 
the  scrotal  sack)  should  be  taken  out  with  the  seed,  and 
the  seed-string  tied  within  the  neck  of  the  scrotal  sack 
with  a  small  twine.  When  this  is  done,  cut  off  the  seed- 
sack,  and  all  behind  the  tie,  and  let  the  hog  go.  I  do 
not  like  sewing  up,  as  large  tumors  sometimes  result  from 
so  doing.  Should  maggots  develop  in  the  gash  where  a 
hog  has  been  cut,  apply  either  turpentine  or  butter-milk. 

"TO   CASTRATE  A  RIDGLING  HOG. 

"  In  a  ridgling  hog,  the  seeds  are  not  in  a  scrotal  sack, 
or  in  their  proper  place,  but  in  the  body  of  the  animal, 
immediately  behind  the  kidneys. 

"  He  should  be  cut  in  the  side,  the  same  as  in  spaying 
a  sow,  but  the  incision  should  be  made  of  sufficient  size 
to  admit  the  whole  hand,  when  the  seeds  can  be  found 
and  easily  pulled  out. 

"TO  SPAY  sows. 

"  One  man  should  be  in  the. pen  to  catch,  and  two  to 
hold  the  sow,  by  the  feet  alone,  flat  on  the  ground  on  her 
right  side,  and  stretched  out  tightly.  The  spayer,  kneel- 
ing at  the  sow's  back,  will  cut  the  hair  off  of  the  place 
where  the  incision  is  to  be  made,  (a  little  back  of  the  last 
rib,  and  about  midway  up  and  down)  ;  then  cut  a  gash — 
if  on  a  hundred-pound  shote,  about  half  an  inch  deep 
and  three  inches  long,  up  and  down ;  slip  the  flesh  back 
each  way,  about  an  inch,  making  a  round  gash  or  wide 
incision  ;  then  turn  the  knife,  and  stick  the  blade  straight 
in, .  gently,  deep  enough  to  go  through  the  peritoneal 
lining,  or  inside  striffen,  at  the  upper  corner  of  the  inci- 
sion. Then  put  the  left  fore-finger  in,  and  with  it  and 
the  right  fore-finger,  tear  the  hole  large  enough  to  allow 
working  room  for  the  fingers  ;  feel  inside  near  the  back, 
with  the  first  two  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  for  the  'pride,' 
a  little  knotty  lump,  which  cannot  be  mistaken,  for  there 
are  no  others  like  it  within  reach,  but  if  it  is  not  found — 


108  SWIJfE    HUSBANDRY. 

as  is  sometimes  the  case,  then  feel  for  small  guts, 
the  'pig-bag/  and  take  them  out  the  best  you  can,  until 
the  first  *  pride '  is  reached  ;  take  this  off  ;  follow  back 
down  the  pig-bed  to  a  fork  where  two  guts  coming  to- 
gether form  a  larger  one,  as  two  branches  running 
together  form  a  creek  ;  here  take  up  the  other  branch 
until  the  lower  'pride'  is  reached;  take  it  off,  put  the 
pig-bed  back  in  good  order,  and  see  that  it  is  all  in  the 
belly  proper,  and  not  left  at  the  gash. 

"  Slack  up  the  upper  hind  leg,  so  as  to  close  the  gash, 
and  sew  up  with  two  stitches,  taking  good  hold,  but  going 
only  skin-deep  ;  one  stitch  near  the  middle  of  the  gash, 
the  other  above  it ;  draw  the  edges  together,  so  as  to  touch 
from  the  middle  of  the  gash  upward.  Both  stitches  may 
ba  taken  before  tying  either,  and  then  tie  the  threads  or 
twine,  crossing  each  other,  in  the  form  of  a  letter  X,  and 
when  the  sow  is  let  go,  press  the  hand  over  the  gash  as 
she  starts  off. 

"  For  spaying  purposes,  the  thread  or  twine  used 
should  not  be  too  harsh  or  too  tightly  twisted." 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
PASTURE    AND    SUMMER   FOOD. 

The  necessity  of  providing  swine  with  summer  pasture 
and  green  food,  is,  even  in  the  best  corn-producing  dis- 
tricts, becoming  more  and  more  apparent,  and  it  is, 
unquestionably,  an  important  factor  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration in  connection  witli  the  economical  production  of 
pork. 

So  much  is  this  the  case  that  we  can  safely  say,  that 
no  farmer  is  prepared  to  raise  hogs  in  any  considerable 
numbers,  unless  provided  with  pasture  and  grass  lands, 


PASTURE    AND    SUMMER    FOOD.  109 

in  which  abundant  water  and  shade  are  accessible  at  all 
times ;  with  such,  hogs  will  thrive  and  grow,  with  but  lit- 
tle or  no  grain,  from  early  spring  until  the  new  crop  of 
corn  is  fit  for  use,  and  the  process  of  fattening  should 
begin. 

This  liberty  of  pasture,  affords  the  growing  animals  that 
exercise  necessary  to  health  and  proper  development,  and 
the  succulent  grasses,  rich  in  muscle  and  bone-forming 
materials,  are  loosening  and  cooling  to  the  system,  tend 
to  keep  it  fre3  from  disease,  and  counteract  the  heating 
and  feverish  properties  of  corn.  A  very  important  con- 
sideration in  favor  of  grass  and  forage  for  swine  in  sum- 
mer, is  its  comparatively  small  cost ;  as  compared  with 
grain-feeding,  the  expense  is  merely  nominal. 

The  loss  that  occurs  every  year  to  farmers,  from  their 
not  realizing  and  acting  upon  the  fact  that  the  hog  is,  in 
in  his  normal  condition,  a  grass-eating  animal,  is  simply 
enormous,  and  it  is  well  settled  in  the  minds  of  all  who 
have  carefully  studied  the  subject,  that  to  keep  swine 
wholly  upon  the  more  concentrated  and  heating  foods,  is 
as  unnatural  and  unprofitable  as  it  would  be  to  keep 
horses  or  cows  in  the  same  manner. 

A  very  interesting  experiment  in  feeding  some  pigs, 
and  one  which  illustrates  this  point,  was  recently  made 
by  the  editor  of  the  National  Live  Stock  Journal.  From 
a  desire  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  whether  a  portion  of  grass, 
or  fibrous  food,  fed  in  connection  with  corn  meal,  was 
not  more  healthful  and  profitable  than  the  meal  without 
other  admixture,  he  made  the  experiment  of  which  he 
thus  speaks  : 

u  Taking  a  litter  of  six  pigs,  five  weeks  old,  we  divided  them 
into  two  lots,  as  nearly  equal  in  weight  and  thrift  as  could  be 
done  with  the  eye.  This  was  on  the  1st  of  June.  One  lot  of  three 
wa<<  put  into  a  pen,  and  fod  upon  com  meal  soaked  in  water  twelve 
hours,  ad  libitum.  The  other  lot  was  put  into  a  pen  alongside,  and 
fed  upon  green  clover,  cut  short  by  a  straw-cutter,  and  mixed  with 
corn  meal.  At  first  only  one  quart  of  this  cut  clover  was  foci  each. 


110  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

pig,  with  all  the  meal  they  would  cat.  This  meal,  being  mixed 
with  clover,  the  particles  were  separated,  and  when  eaten,  went 
into  the  stomach  in  a  spongy  condition,  so  that  the  gastric  juice 
could  penetrate  the  mass  as  water  a  sponge.  The  gastric  juice 
came  in  contact  with  every  part  of  the  mass  at  once,  and  the  diges- 
tion was  soon  accomplished.  This  lot  of  pigs,  with  the  clover  and 
meal,  were  always  lively,  always  ready  for  their  feed  ;  whilst  the 
other  lot,  with  meal  alone,  ate  greedily  for  a  time,  then  became 
mincing  and  dainty  for  a  few  days,  showing  a  feverish  state  of  the 
system,  contenting  themselves  for  a  few  meals  with  water,  and  by 
fasting  got  over  it,  and  went  on  eating  again.  This  was  repeated 
many  times  during  the  five  mouths  that  the  experiment  lu>ted.  At 
the  end  of  the  time  the  two  lots  were  weighed.  The  lot  fed  on 
meal  alone,  weighed  150  Ibs.  each ;  the  other  lot,  210  Ibs.  each,  or 
40  per  cent,  more  for  being  treated  as  grass-eating  animals.  Each 
lot  consumed  the  same  amount  of  meal.  The  clover,  in  this  case, 
was  given  in  small  quantity,  and  intended  merely  to  furni>h  a 
divisor  for  the  meal.  The  amount  never  exceeded  two  quart>  of 
cut  clover  at  a  feed.  "We  have  since  fed  pigs  this  way,  in  sum- 
mer, giving  all  the  cut  clover  they  would  eat.  This  will  be  found 
the  best  way  to  feed  pigs  where  it  is  inconvenient  to  give  them  a 
run  in  pasture.  They  have  always  been  healthy  under  this  tnai- 
mcnt,  which  we  call  the  normal  ration — grass  alone,  or  grass  and 
grain  mixed.  But  larger  growth  will  be  made  by  feeding  a  small 
portion  of  oil  meal,  mingled  with  the  corn  meal  and  grass ;  the 
oil  meal  being  rich  in  nitrogen  and  phosphate  of  lime,  to  grow  the 
muscle  and  bone,  giving  a  larger  growth  to  the  frame,  and  thus 
making- more  pounds  of  pork  in  a  given  time. 

"  In  order  further  to  test  this  matter  of  feeding  fibrous  food  with 
grain,  we  experimented,  in  winter,  with  two  lots  of  pigs,  two  in  each 
lot.  Each  lot  weighed  150  Ibs.  at  commencement  of  experiment, 
and  were  all  of  the  same  age.  The  trial  continued  one  hundred 
and  twenty  days.  One  lot  was  fed  corn  meal,  wet  up  with  hot 
water,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours.  The  other  lot  was 
fed  a  little  short-cut  clover  hay  and  corn  meal,  wet  up  with  hot 
water  and  allowed  to  stand.  In  this  case,  also,  each  lot  con- 
sumed about  the  same  quantity  of  corn  meal.  The  pigs  on  meal 
alone  were  healthier  than  those  in  the  other  experiments,  as  they 
were  older,  and  the  weather  being  cold,  were  not  so  feverish.  This 
lot  gained  110  ibs.  per  head,  and  the  lot  on  clover  hay  and  meal 
gained  143  Ibs.  each,  or  30  per  cent  more. 

"  There  is,  no  doubt,  a  great  loss  every  year,  to  the  farmers,  for 


PASTUIiE    AND    SUMMER    FOOD.  Ill 

not  treating  the  pig  as  a  grass-eating  animal,  and  giving  him  his 
normal  ration." 

It  seems  to  be  an  unquestionable  fact,  that  the  reason 
why  many  'fail  to  realize  what  they  might  from  their 
swine  herds,  is  that  they  devote  their  time  and  attention 
almost  entirely  to  the  corn  field,  and  utterly  ignore  the 
necessity  for,  or  value  of,  pasture  and  green  food  in  the 
summer  season.  In  their  eagerness  to  secure  an  abundance 
of  winter  and  fattening  food,  they  fail  to  encourage  rapid 
growth  upon  healthful  and  inexpensive  food  in  the  most 
favorable  months  of  the  year. 

Various  estimates  and  tables  have  been  prepared  by 
scientific  men,  to  show  the  amount  of  nutritive  material 
an  acre  of  land  will  produce,  in  cereals  and  grass,  and  a 
fair  average  of  their  conclusions  on  the  subject  is  shown 
in  the  following  table  :  The  estimate  of  the  product  of 
an  acre  of  clover  is  quite  low,  as,  when  well  matured,  an 
acre  can,  in  a  favorable  season,  be  made  to  yield  more 
than  the  amount  here  given.  The  table  is  on  the  basis 
that  four  pounds  of  the  raw  material  will  make  one  pound 
of  pork,  except  that  for  clover,  fifteen  pounds  is  allowed 
for  a  pound  of  pork. 


Gross  ProdiK 
No.  bush. 
Wheat                      IS 

tf  per  acre. 
Ibs. 
900 
1,680 
1,320 
2,240 
1,500 
12,000 

Pork  per  acre. 
Ibs. 
225 
420 
320 
560 
375 
800 

Value,  at  4 
cts.  per  Id. 
$9.00 
16.80 
13.20 
22.40 
15.00 
32.00 

Barlev  

...35 

Oats  *    . 

...40 

Corn 

40 

Peas  

...25 

Green  clover... 

..  6  tons 

If  this  is  true  in  practice,  it  is  evident  that  an  acre 
of  clover  is  worth,  for  pork-making,  as  much  as  31/, 
acres  of  average  wheat,  almost  as  much  as  r/a  acre  of 
good  corn,  and  nearly  as  much  as  21/,  acres  of  good 
oats.  Hogs  that  have  made  most  of  their  growth  on 
corn,  have  stomachs  too  small  to  be  the  most  successful 
grass-feeders,  or  make  large  gains  on  bulky  food  of  any 
sort.  Swine  that  are  expected  to  make  the  most  gain  on  a 


112  SWIM,    in  >I;\M»KV. 

grass  diet,  should  previously  bo  allowed  a  portion  of  food 
sufficiently  bulky  to  properly  distend  their  stomachs, 
without  which  they  will  lack  carrying  room. 

Hog  pastures,  in  July  and  August,  if  the  wcuthrr  is 
quite  dry,  are  likely  to  become  short  of  forage,  and  much 
of  the  ground  rooted  over ;  in  this  case  the  stock  musi 
have  extra  attention.  Provision  can  be  made  for  such 
emergencies  by  sowing  a  crop  of  peas  at  the  proper  sea- 
son, and  for  swine  in  warm  weather,  there  are  few  kin. is 
of  food  equal  to  peas.  Two  bushels,  sown  broadcast  on 
an  acre  of  properly-prepared  land,  should  produce  about 
"thirty  bushels  of  shelled  peas,  which  the  hogs  will  har- 
vest, and  if  not  tos  ripe,  puas,  pods,  vines,  and  all,  will 
be  eaten. 

The  value  of  the  field  pea  is  not  known  or  appreciated 
by  the  western  farmers  as  it  should  be,  and  as  it  is  likely 
will  be,  in  the  future  ;  they  produce  more  flesh  in  propor- 
tion to  fat  than  corn,  and  are  fit  for  use  at  a  season  when 
especially  needed.  In  England,  where  it  if  impossible  to 
raise  corn,  farmers  rely  largely  on  peas  to  fatten  their 
pork ;  while  in  Canada,  where  very  fair  com  is  raised, 
they  claim  thtit  more  hog  food  can  be  provided  from  an 
acre  of  peas  than  from  an  acre  of  corn. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  time  is  near  at  hand, 
when  an  important  food  for  swine  is  to  be  furished  in  the 
Jerusalem  Artichoke ;  sometimes  called  the  Brazilian 
Artichoke,  an  incorrect  name,  as  the  plant  is  not  known 
in  Brazil.  While  but  little  information  has  been  given 
to  the  public  as  to  the  best  variety,  or  manner  of  pro- 
ducing them,  they  are  held  in  high  estimation  by  those 
who  have  given  them  a  fair  trial. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Williams,  of  Vinton,  Iowa,  a  very  promi- 
nent and  successful  breeder  of  Poland-Chinas,  in  large 
numbers,  says : 

"  The  keep  of  my  hogs,  in  warm  weather,  is  Blue  grass,  Clover, 
and  Brazilian  Artichokes.  Forty  head  of  hogs,  and  their  pigs, 


PASTl    Kl       \M»    SIMMHR    FOOD.  Ho 

may  be  kept  without  other  food  on  an  acre  of  Artichokes,  from  the 
time  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  until  the  first  of  June,  and  from 
September,  or  October,  until  the  Around  is  again  frozen. 

"  To  grow  them,  the  ground  should  be  rich,  plowed  eight  or  ten 
inches  deep,  the  tubers  cut  same  as  seed  potatoes,  and  planted 
from  early  spring  to  June  10th,  ten  to  fifteen  inchc3  apart,  in  rows 
that  are  three  feet  apart,  with  six  bushels  of  seed  to  the  acre. 

"  They  can  also  be  planted  in  the  fall,  from  October  15th  to 
November  15th,  but  th?  tubers  should  not  be  cut,  and  the  ground 
should  be  throughly  rolled  after  planting. 

"  If  plantsd  in  spring,  plenty  of  rain  in  July  and  August  will 
make  them  large  enough  to  turn  hogs  on  in  September,  otherwise 
not  until  a  month  later.  If  in  foul  ground,  they  may,  when  three 
or  four  inches  high,  be  given  a  thorough  working  with  cultivators, 
and  when  the  hogs  have  been  removed,  to  allow  a  new  crop  of 
tubers  to  grow,  the  ground  should  be  made  smooth  by  harrowing, 
that  the  tops  may  be  cut  with  a  mower,  as  food  for  horses  and 
cattle. 

"  Enough  seed  will  remain  in  the  ground  for  another  crop,  but 
they  can  easily  be  eradicated  by  mowing  off  the  tops  and  plowing 
the  ground  deeply  in  July  and  the  early  part  of  August. 

"  The  Brazilian  Artichoke  is  red,  does  not  spread  and  scatter  like 
the  wild,  white  variety,  and  produces  more  hog-feed  to  the  acre 
than  any  crop  I  am  acquainted  with,  and  the  hogs  will  harvest  the 
crop  themselves. 

"  Hogs  taken  from  the  artichoke  pastures  to  clover  and  blue- 
grass,  will  not  root  up  the  sod,  cs  they  are  free  from  intestinal 
worms,  constipation,  indigestion,  and  fever,  caused  by  feeding  corn 
in  winter." 

The  editor  of  the  Stock  Jo urnal,  writing  of  Mr.  Williams' 
hogs,  as  seen  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair  of  187G,  said  : 

"Mr.  Williams,  of  Vinton,  had  on  exhibition  one  of  the  largest 
displays  of  Poland-Chinas  we  have  ever  seen  on  any  fair  ground 
from  a  single  individual.  Mr.  W.  captured  the  first  prize  on  sows 
over  one  year  and  under  six  months,  and  the  second  on  a  pair  of 
pigs  under  six  months,  in  a  ring  of  28  entries,  and  a  recommended 
herd  premium.  Mr.  Williams  informed  us  that  his  herd  was 
taken  off  his  pastures  and  artichoke  fields  without  any  previous 
fixing  up." 

Considering  how  the  majority  of  premium  hogs  and 
pigs  are  pampered  and  " fixed  up"  before  they  are  taken 


114  SWINE    lIUSBANDliY. 

to  State  Fairs,  this  is  a  very  high  compliment  to  Mr. 
Williams'  "keep."  A  gentleman  writing  to  the  Prairie 
Farmer  from  Wakarusa,  Kansas,  speaks  of  artichokes  as 
follows  : 

"  The  Jerusalem  Artichoke,  in  this  State,  forms  a  large  tuber, 
(those  of  over  a  pound  in  weight  being  nothing  unusual),  is  won- 
derfully productive,  very  nutritious,  and  is  well  liked  by  the  hogs, 
even  in  a  raw  state. 

"  I  planted  a  few  last  year  to  raise  seed  for  this  season ;  and  in 
digging  them  I  found  that  they  had  token  entire  possession  of  the 
ground,  so  that  I  had  to  dig  up  all  the  ground  between  the  rows 
as  well  as  between  the  hills,  and  the  largest  and  finest  tubers  were 
found  deep  down  in  the  compact  sub-soil  where  the  plow  had  never 
reached. 

"  Here  I  am  reminded  of  the  only  objection  (so-called)  that  I  have 
ever  heard  urged  against  the  artichoke;  which  is,  that  if  they  once 
get  into  a  piece  of  ground  they  never  can  be  eradicated.  This,  in- 
stead of  being  a  valid  objection,  Is  really  one  of  the  strongest  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  its  use  for  the  purpose  under  consideration. 

"  I  think  that  in  seeding  hog  pastures  to  the  artichoke,  a  division 
fence  should  be  run  through  the  middle,  so  that  one  half  could  rest 
each  alternate  year,  and  not  be  disturbed  during  the  growing  sea- 
son. Enough,  in  any  event,  would  be  left  in  the  ground  for  seed, 
but  in  this  way  the  tubers  would  have  a  better  chance  to  mature. 

"  In  selecting  a  piece  of  ground  for  hog  pasture,  (if  intended  to 
be  planted  with  artichokes),  it  will  be  best  to  take  a  rich,  moist 
soil,  though  they  will  grow  in  any  soil  that  is  suitable  for  potatoes. 
Having  made  the  selection  with  due  care  and  forethought,  let  that 
piece  be  dedicated  forever  to  the  artichoke,  when  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  impossibility  of  its  eradication  becomes  its  highest  recommen- 
dation, for  no  further  labor  will  ever  be  required  in  planting,  cul- 
tivating, or  digging;  the  swine  will  have  plenty  of  the  best  of  sum- 
mer food,  and  they  will  cultivate  it  and  dig  it  themselves" 

The  following,  to  the  same  journal,  was  from  an  Illi- 
nois correspondent : 

"I  have  raised  the  Jerusalem  Artichoke  on  my  place  twelve 
years.  Soil  the  same  as  the  common  prairies  of  Iowa  and  Illinois, 
and  my  experience  proves  them  to  be  a  very  valuable  and  useful 
crop.  All  kinds  of  stock,  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs,  and  chick- 
ens, are  fond  of  them.  I  regard  them  as  very  healthy  food,  and 


PASTUliE    AND    SUMMER    FOOD.  115 

necessary  in  addition  to  grain,  in  the  spring,  and  at  this  time,  are 
feeding  them  to  my  milch  cows  with  the  best  results. 

"  One  can  commence  using  them  in  September,  and  from  thence 
to  June,  but  to  use  them  when  the  ground  is  frozen  solid,  they  must 
be  gathered  and  heaped,  and  covered  with  straw  and  earth,  other- 
wise, whenever  the  ground  can  be  got  into  they  can  be  used ; 
being  frozen  in  the  ground  tends  to  make  them  crisp  ani  sweet. 
Plenty  of  artichokes  and  a  little  corn  brings  the  hogs  out  fine 
in  the  spring,  and  they  will  dig  them  themselves,  and  will  do  the 
same  in  the  fall. 

"  I  was  warned  by  my  neighbors,  when  I  got  them,  to  look  out 
or  they  would  get  my  farm,  and  take  my  place  to  its  ruin,  but  this 
has  not  been  my  experience,  I  always  consoled  myself  that  if 
they  got  the  advantage  of  me  and  grew  spontaneously,  the  struggle 
would  be  between  them  and  weeds,  the  difference  being,  the  arti- 
chokes would  have  roots  at  the  bottom,  and  the  weeds  nothing. 
The  only  difficulty  has  been  to  keep  a  sufficiency  of  roots  beyond 
the  reach  of  hogs,  to  renew  my  crop  with.  Cultivate  same  as  pota- 
toes, and  same  amount  of  seed,  will  yield  five  to  one  of  potatoes, 
with  same  culture,  and  are  much  easier  to  cultivate,  as  they  have 
a  strong  upright  stalk.  Plant  in  the  spring;  any  time  in  April 
will  do  best ;  I  would  plant  in  May  rather  than  rniss.  Soil  cannot 
be  too  rich." 

The  following  also  appeared  in  the  Burlington  (Iowa) 
Hawkey e,  about  the  same  time  : 

"  Last  spring  I  planted  a  double  handful  of  small  tubers,  cut  still 
smaller,  I  think  about  40  pieces,  and  about  35  plants  grew  in  two 
rows  about  35  feet  long  (11  steps).  A  few  days  ago  I  dug  them, 
and  they  were  over  seven  bushels.  I  threw  over  the  last  dug  bushel 
to  the  pigs  and  they  eat  them  with  avidity.  I  knocked  the  dirt  off 
a  large  one,  and  offered  it  to  the  horse  at  the  garden  fence,  and  he 
eat  it.  Three  of  the  best  plants  yielded  each  one-half  bushel  even 
full,  and  the  majority  yielded  over  a  peck  each.  They  were 
planted  in  good,  moist  ground,  and  hoed  once.  The  six  bushels 
are  now  in  a  heap  in  my  garden,  and  I  intend  to  plant  most  of 
them.  In  spading  up  where  my  garden  fence  had  been,  I  found 
those  tubers  in  the  ground.  They  were  there  18  years  ago,  when 
we  came  here,  and  how  much  longer,  probably  the  former  owner 
could  tell.  One  of  your  correspondents  is  wrong  about  the  arti- 
choke being  impossible  to  eradicate.  I  once  planted  some,  and  in 
the  autumn  turned  in  hogs,  (without  knowing  anything  about  the 


116  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

fiekl),  and  the  next  spring  inclosed  it  in  a  calf  pasture,  and  the  fol- 
lowing spring  none  appeared.  The  yield  per  acre  would  certainly 
be  enormous, and  freezing  does  no  injury.  This  saves  much  labor 
of  digging  before  frost,  or  digging  at  all  for  hogs." 

The  common  method  of  feeding  corn,  alone,  twelve 
months  in  the  year,  is  favorable  to  the  production  of  the 
well-known  (( land  pikes,"  so  common  on  the  farms- of 
the  West,  a  few  years  since,  and  tens  of  thousands  of 
hogs  have  been  lost  by  the  so-called  "hog  cholera,"  and 
other  diseases,  wholly  and  directly  the  result  of  defective 
and  unnatural  feeding.  We  look  upon  more  and  better- 
grass,  shade,  and  water,  with  less  dry  corn,  fed  in  mud, 
filth,  and  dust,  as  the  great  panaceas  for  the  many  ail- 
ments with  which  such  enormous  numbers  of  hogs  are 
annually  afflicted  and  lost.  A  practical  and  well  known 
western  writer  was  not  far  from  the  facts,  when  he  said, 
in  1872  : 

"  With  many  of  those  who  raise  hogs  in  the  West,  but  little 
attention  is  paid  to  their  natures,  habits,  wants,  or  feed  lots ;  the 
latter  are  allowed  to  become  a  noisome  pestilence,  and  the  only 
wonder  is  that  the  whole  race  of  swine  is  not  exterminated  by 
cholera,  blind-staggers,  etc.,  engendered  by  these  sink-holes  of 
iniquity." 

In  a  series  of  carefully  prepared  articles  written  for  the 
Prairie  Farmer,  by  Hon.  Elmer  Baldwin,  of  Illinois,  he 
makes  the  following  fair  statements  about  the  desirability 
of  pasture  and  forage  for  swine  : 

"The  firmer  who  proposes  to  make  money  by  raising  pork, 
must  have  a  pasture  for  his  swine  during  the  season  of  grass. 
Without  it  the  balance  is  very  apt  to  be  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
ledger  after  selling  his  crop. 

u  Clover  is  supposed  to  be  the  best,  but  Timothy  is  doubtless 
equally  good.  Swine  like  it  about  as  well,  and  it  is  more  nutritious. 
Blue-grass  docs  well,  when  better  is  not  to  be  had;  even  a  field  of 
weeds  is  better  than  no  pasture,  as  many  varieties  of  weeds  are  ex- 
cellent feed.  Many  a  poor  widow  has  made  a  good  porker  almost 
solely  on  weeds  from  her  garden. 

"  Where  a  sufficient  range  of  pasture  cannot  be  had,  soiling  does 


PASTURE    AND    SUMMER    FOOD.  117 

well.  Clover  or  Timothy  cut  when  green  and  fresh,  and  fed  regu- 
larly, is  the  next  best  feed  to  a  good  range  of  pasture. 

"As  soon  as  the  grass  starts  in  the  spring,  the  hogs  should  be 
turneil  in,  as  they  like  it  best  when  short  and  tender.  They  will 
subsist  and  grow  well  on  grass  alone,  with  a  little  salt  occasionally. 
Some  prefer  to  feed  a  little  corn  daily ;  it  may  or  may  not  be  good 
policy ;  they  will  be  farther  advanced  for  fattening,  but  will  not 
fatten  as  well  as  if  none  is  fed  in  summer,  and  with  good  pasture, 
water,  and  shade,  they  will  give  satisfactory  results.  •  They  will 
not  fatten  on  grass,  but  it  prepares  them  for  fattening. 

"  Their  systems  are  in  a  healthy  state.  They  have  no  ulcerated 
livers  and  stomachs,  as  they  will  have  if  fed  on  corn  through  the 
hot  weather. 

"  Thus  kept,  they  are  prepared  by  the  first  of  September  to  com- 
mence the  fattening  process,  with  sound  teeth,  good  digestion,  and 
vigorous  health.  They  will  after  that  time  promptly  pay  for  all 
the  feed  judiciously  given.  It  may  be,  and  doubtless  is,  true,  that 
a  light  feed  of  bran  or  light  provender  might  be  fed  with  profit 
luring  the  summer ;  but  it  is  doubtful  if  corn  in  any  quantity  is 
/beneficial. 

' '  Feeding  on  corn  alone,  during  the  summer,  except  it  to  be 
send  them  to  a  summer  market,  is  bad  policy ;  they  become  un- 
healthy, teeth  sore,  appetites  cloyed,  and  they  will  not  feed  satis- 
factorily in  the  fall,  and  the  comparative  expense  of  grass  and  corn 
feeding  must  be  drawn  as  to  which  is  the  best  policy.  The  cost  of 
grass  feeding,  even  with  other  light  feed,  is  merely  nominal,  while 
a  hog  fed  on  corn,  from  the  time  it  is  weaned  from  the  sow  until 
butchered  at  eighteen  months  old,  can  seldom  pay  expenses. 

"  The  chief  end  of  a  hog  is  the  weight  and  quality  of  his  carcass. 
His  value  depends  upon  his  being  well  fattened,  and  the  object 
aimed  at  during  his  whole  life  is  to  prepare  him  for  that  event.  If 
he  fails  in  that,  his  life  is  a  failure. 

"  Corn  is  the  proper  food  fer  fattening,  but  not  for  growth ;  and 
the  fattening  process  is  always,  to  some  extent,  a  disease-producing 
process,  and  if  too  long  continued  is  always  so. 

"But  when  the  animal  commences  fattening  in  vigorous  health, 
having  lived  for  months  on  green  vegetable  and  light  food,  his 
health  will  remain  firm  through  any  reasonable  time  required  to 
beco  ne  fat.  But  if  fed  uninterruptedly  on  heavy,  hearty,  dry 
food  for  all  his  life,  his  health,  if  not  already  destroyed,  is  injured, 
and  will  yield  to  such  unnatural  living  before  there  is  time  to  fat- 
ten, as  will  be  shown  bv  loss  of  appetite,  restlessness,  unnatural 


118  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

craving  for  lime,  clay,  bones,  hen-dung,  etc.  A  hog  thus  affected 
can  not  be  fattened  more  that  season ;  he  had  better  be  slaugh- 
tered, (although  it  is  doubtful  if  his  carcass  is  fit  for  food),  or  turned 
out  for  a  year,  to  recuperate. 

"  It  is  a  common  practice  to  endeavor  to  counteract  this  tendency 
to  disease  by  feeding  sulphur,  coal,  bones,  clay,  rotten  wood,  etc., 
which  may  be,  to  some  extent,  beneficial ;  but  it  is  like  the  drugs 
used  to  infuse  life  and  health  into  the  gouty,  rheumatic,  apoplectic, 
epicurean  biped.  The  health  thus  obtained  is  of  an  inappreciable 
amount  compared  with  that  of  the  hardy  rustic  who  never  had 
gout  or  apoplexy.  The  hog  is  an  epicurean  philosopher;  and  as 
Providence  deals  with  his  biped  prototype,  (the  votary  of  that  phi- 
losophy), by  throwing  in  disease  at  the  proper  time  to  close  the 
scene,  so  the  butcher's  knife  should  do  for  the  quadruped  what 
Providence  does  for  the  biped,  but  a  little  in  advance,  just  before 
the  disease  is  developed.  That  is,  the  fattening  process  should  be 
completed  as  soon  as  possible,  (and  before  disease  supervenes), 
both  for  economy,  and  to  insure  a  good,  healthful  quality  of  meat, 
and  when  the  proper  amount  of  fat  is  laid  on,  the  animal  should 
be  slaughtered  at  once." 

It  must  appear  to  any  candid  observing  man  that  the 
use  of  grasses,  peas,  artichokes,  etc. ,  instead  of  corn,  for 
the  summer  diet  of  hogs,  must  be  rational  and  profitable, 
in  producing  healthier  animals,  affording  a  fairer  remu- 
neration to  the  raiser,  and,  above  all,  food  more  nearly 
fit  for  the  human  stomach. 

PASTURE  ;  let  this  word  be  written  in  capitals,  by  every 
man  who  raises  swine — it  is  the  secret  of  success. 


C  HA  P  T  E  R     XIV. 
FATTENING. 

Healthy  swine,  of  good  breed,  that  have  been  previously 
kept  in  such  a  manner,  and  for  such  a  length  of  time, 
(the  latter  depending  largely  on  the  breed)  as  to  develop 
a  good-sized  and  properly  formed  frame,  if  put  upon  full, 
but  not  too  concentrated,  feed  in  the  early  days  of  Sep- 


FATTENING.  119 

tember,  are  expected  to,  and  will,  lay  on  flesh  very  rap- 
idly. The  quantity  will  vary,  with  different  animals, 
from  half  a  pound  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  per  day,  the 
latter  quantity,  however,  being  quite  extraordinary. 

Whatever  the  season  of  the  year,  or  the  number  of  ani- 
mals to  be  fattened,  it  is  important  that  the  enclosure  in 
which  they  are  kept  and  fed,  should  have  good  surface 
drainage  ;  if  possible,  there  should  be  plenty  of  running 
water,  that  their  feed-lots  may  not  become  miry,  and  to 
prevent  the  necessity  of  the  animals  drinking  from  im- 
pure sloughs,  or  mud -holes. 

With  the  best  management,  it  is  not  desirable  that 
more  than  about  forty  head  should  be  confined  to  less 
than  an  acre  of  ground ;  though  it  is  frequently  the  prac- 
tice to  feed  that,  or  a  greater  number,  in  a  much  smaller 
space,  where  they  are  compelled  to  eat,  drink,  and  sleep 
in  their  own  filth  ;  after  some  months  of  this  treatment, 
if  not  carried  off  by  that  ever  convenient  scapegoat, 
"  cholera,"  they  become  a  good  and  fair  quality  of — car- 
rion. If  any  considerable  number  are  to  be  fattened, 
and  the  large,  medium,  and  small-sized  hogs  can  be  fed 
by  themselves,  in  different  pens  or  lots,  it  is  an  excellent 
plan  to  do  this  ;  and  if  not  more  than  fifteen,  twenty, 
or  twenty-five  are  kept  together,  they  will  be  more  peace- 
able, feed  better,  gain  faster,  and  be  healthier,  than  if 
huddled  together  indiscriminately,  to  spend  their  time  in 
continual  turmoil  and  uproar.  To  be  more  precise  about 
the  space  fattening  hogs  should  have,  we  consider  any 
space  sufficient  in  which  a  reasonable  number  are  afforded 
comfort,  cleanliness,  and  a  moderate  degree  of  exercise  ; 
while  any  pen  is  too  small,  that  compels  any  number  to 
be  filthy  and  uncomfortable. 

When  taken  from  grass,  or  other  bulky  diet,  to  be  fat- 
tened, the  change  to  a  more  concentrated  food  should  be 
gradual,  as  too  sudden  a  change  is  sometimes  attended 
with  injurious  effects,  if  not  the  loss  of  some  animals 


120  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

outright.  They  should,  at  first,  have  liuht  IVi-d.  Hran 
and  other  mill-stuff,  made  into  slop,  and  given  with  their 
grain,  is  good,  and  if  the  refuse  from  the  orchard  and 
potato  field  is  given  them,  it  will  be  beneficial,  and  espe- 
cially so,  if  cooked  and  mixed  with  bran,  meal,  etc. 

Our  own  custom  is,  to  plant  early  in  the  spring 
a  piece  of  good,  rich  ground,  with  some  of  the  larger 
kinds  of  sweet  corn,  or  an  early  variety  of  field  corn, 
and  with  it  put  some  pumpkin  seeds  in  every  sixth  or 
eighth  hill,  each  way.  Early  in  the  season  this  corn  is 
in  "roas ting-ear,"  when  we  begin  feeding  it  to  the  hogs, 
stalk  and  all — as  much  as  they  will  clean  up.  It  seems 
exactly  suited  to  their  appetites,  and  starts  them  along 
in  growth  and  fattening  in  a  manner  that  is  always  grati- 
fying. Cutting  the  early  corn  from  the  ground  haMni- 
the  growth  of  the  pumpkins,  which  then  begin  ripening, 
and  are  soon  fit  for  use. 

After  the  hogs  have  eaten  every  mouthful  of  the  green 
corn  that  they  will,  we  give  them  as  many  pumpkins 
as  they  want,  and  usually,  each  grown  hog  will  eat  one 
good-sized  pumpkin,  or  more.  Before  they  are  given 
to  the  hogs,  the  pumpkins  should  be  chopped  open,  and 
all,  or  most  all,  of  the  seeds  removed,  as  in  large  quan- 
tities they  affect  the  urinary  organs  very  Injuriously,  and 
so  derange  an  animal's  system  as  to  make  him  nearly 
worthless  for  any  purpose. 

We  consider  that  the  pork  made  in  this  way,  at  this 
time  of  year,  yields  us  as  much  clear  profit  as  any  we 
produce.  We  like  to  cut  up  corn  for  the  hogs  as  late  in 
the  season  as  they  will  eat  a  good  portion  of  the  fodder, 
and  after  this,  it  requires  but  a  few  weeks  of  feeding  on 
clear  corn  to  fully  ripen  them  for  slaughter.  We  differ 
from  many  experienced  feeders,  in  believing  that  the  new 
corn  will  fatten  hogs  faster  than  that  a  year  or  two  old  ; 
but  for  finishing  off  a  lot  of  porkers  for  market,  we  read- 


FATTENING.  121 

ily  concede  that  a  plenty  of  old  sound  corn  is  good  enough 
for  anybody. 

As  to  continuing  the  use  of  pumpkins,  we  never  suc- 
ceeded ir.  raising  too  many,  or  in  keeping  them  into  the 
winter  longer  than  we  liked  to  feed  them,  but  fattening 
hogs  should  fill  up  with  a  full  meal  of  corn  before  being 
given  the  pumpkins,  else  they  would  eat  too  much  pump- 
kin in  proportion  to  the  corn,  and  be  very  slow  in  storing 
up  fat.  Pumpkins,  like  wheat  bran,  are  useful  adjuncts 
to  the  more  concentrated  kinds  of  food,  but  alone  cannot 
be  depanded  on  for  fattening  purposes. 

If  there  is  soft,  or  poor  corn  to  be  fed  out,  it  should 
be  used  first,  as,  after  beginning  to  feed,  a  change  from 
strong,  sound  feed,  to  that  which  is  poor  and  chaffy,  is 
usually  for  the  worse.  Any  change  during  the  feeding 
season  should  be  from  light  to  heavier,  and  more  nutri- 
tious food,  and  never  the  reverse.  When,  by  gradually 
increasing  the  quantity  of  fattening  food,  the  hogs  have 
become  accustomed  to  it,  they  should  be  given  at  regular 
hours,  early  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  late  in  the 
evening,  as  much  corn  as  they  will  eat  up  clean,  but  no 
more. 

This  caution  is  applicable  to  all  other  foods  as  well  as 
corn,  though  we  are  aware  that  comparatively  few  hogs 
are  fattened  in  the  corn-growing  regions,  except  upon 
corn  in  the  ear,  and  probably  the  time  is  far  dff  when  it 
will  be  otherwise. 

So  easily  and  abundantly  raised,  it  has  become  the  prin- 
cipal food  for  fatting  all  kinds  of  farm  stock,  and  being 
so  common,  is  fed  in  many  cases  without  a  proper  knowl- 
edge of  its  adaptability  to  the  animal  economy,  as  is 
shown  by  the  constant  tendency  to  disease  and  degener- 
acy in  our  domestic  animals.  Its  exclusive  use  is  not  the 
best  economy,  but  being  so  easily  produced,  and  in  such 
convenient  form  for  feeding,  especially  in  cold  weather,  it 
is  simply  courting  ridicule  to  protest  against  it ;  we  will, 
6 


122  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

nevertheless,  venture  to  introduce  here  an  item  embody- 
ing the  views  endorsed  by  many  of  the  most  learned  sci- 
entists ;  it  is  from  the  report  (see  Ch.  XXIV.),  made  in 
the  fall  of  1876,  to  the  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, by  Dr.  Detmers,  V.  S.  This  gentleman  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Board  to  investigate  the  so-called  "  Hog 
Cholera,"  in  its  various  forms  and  phases,  its  symptoms 
and  causes,  and  to  suggest  means  of  prevention,  and  ra- 
tional treatment. 

He  writes  as  follows  : 

"  Finally,  I  wish  to  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to  a  hygienic  mistake 
committed  on  almost  every  farm  in  the  west.  I  refer  to  the  practice 
of  feeding  the  swine  exclusively  with  corn,  a  practice  which  cer- 
tainly is  not  calculated  to  produce  healthy  and  vigorous  animals, 
but  which  necessarily  must  result,  as  I  shall  try  to  show,  in  weak- 
ening the  organism,  and  in  creating  a  predisposition  to  disease. 
How  much  or  how  little  this  practice  has  contributed  in  producing 
the  now  prevailing  epizootic  influenza  of  swine  I  am  not  prepared 
to  decide.  I  have,  however,  reasons  to  suppose  that  this  practice 
has  not  been  without  influence.  The  organism  of  a  domestic  ani- 
mal is  composed  of  about  fifteen  to  twenty  elements,  or  undecom- 
posable  constituents  of  matter,  united  in  numerous  organic  com- 
pounds. A  constant  change  of  matter  is  taking  place,  and  a  part 
of  these  elements,  in  form  of  organic  compounds,  is  constantly 
wasted,  and  carried  off  by  the  processes  of  secretion  and  excretion. 
The  organism,  therefore,  in  order  to  remain  healthy,  and  to  main- 
tain its  normal  composition,  must  receive,  from  time  to  time,  an 
adequate  supply  of  those  elements,  contained  in  suitable  or  digest- 
ible organic  compounds,  so  as  to  cover  the  continual  loss,  and,  if 
the  animal  is  young,  to  produce  growth  and  development.  The 
simplest  wa}^to  introduce  these  elements  into  the  animal  organism 
is  to  give  food  which  contains  them  in  nearly  the  right  proportions. 
A  few  of  these  elements,  besides  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  are  some- 
times in  the  form  of  suitable  compounds  in  limited,  though  very 
seldom  sufficient,  quantities  in  the  water  for  drinking;  for  in- 
stance, calcium,  in  the  form  of  lime,  iron,  etc.  One  important 
element — oxygen — enters  the  organism,  also,  in  large  quantities, 
through  the  lungs  and  through  the  skin,  but  all  others  have  to  be 
introduced  wholly,  or  almost  wholly,  in  the  form  of  food.  Almost 
all  kinds  of  food,  however,  milk  perhaps  excepted,  lack  some  im- 


FATTENING. 

portant  elements  in  their  composition,  contain  others  in  insufficient 
quantities,  and  still  others  in  greater  abundance  than  required. 
Therefore,  if  such  a  kind  of  food  is  given  exclusively — corn,  for 
instance — which  is  destitute  of  some  of  the  mineral  elements,  and 
contains  only  an  insufficient  quantity  of  nitrogenous  compounds, 
which  are  of  so  great  importance  in  the  animal  organization,  irreg- 
ularities and  disorders,  in  the  exercise  of  the  various  functions  and 
organs,  will  be  the  unavoidable  results." 

Prof.  S.  A.  Knapp,  an  extensive  breeder  of  thorough- 
bred swine,  at  Vinton,  Iowa,  to  satisfy  himself  that  too 
much  corn,  without  other  food,  was  detrimental  to  the 
health  of  pigs,  made  some  experiments,  one  of  which  he 
speaks  of  as  follows  : 

"Two  years  since,  I  experimented  in  feeding  dry  corn  andwrater 
to  a  thrifty,  vigorous  pig,  about  twelve  weeks  old.  In  three  weeks 
there  were  indications  of  fever ;  the  fourth  week  he  became  stiff 
in  his  limbs,  extremely  cojstive,  with  skin  dry — appetite  yet  good. 
The  fifth  week  there  was  great  weakness  in  the  hind  parts— swell- 
ing of  the  sheath,  retention  of  urine,  costiveness,  and  fickle  appe- 
tite. The  diet  was  then  changed  to  dish-water  and  cooked  bran 
drinks ;  in  three  weeks  the  pig  was  apparently  well." 

If  kept  in  dry  lots,  or  fed  in  pens,  plenty  of  trough 
room  should  be  provided,  and  at  least  twice  a  day  the 
hogs  should  have  as  much  clean  water  as  they  will  drink, 
and  practical  men  know  that  this  is  no  inconsiderable 
quantity. 

Whatever  the  feed  may  be,  it  should  be  given  in  such  a 
manner  that  they  will  be  forced  to  eat  as  little  filth  as 
possible,  and  if  corn  can  be  fed  on  a  clean  floor,  or  ground 
having  a  sod,  it  is  an  excellent  plan.  But  when  the  ani- 
mals, to  get  their  feed,  must  swallow  as  much  mud  and 
manure  as  grain,  but  poor  results  can  be  expected. 

Regularity,  as  to  times  of  feeding,  and  quality  and  quan- 
tity of  feed,  should  be  observed ;  no  animal  should  be  fed 
so  as  to  become  surfeited,  and  only  so  much  food  should 
be  given  at  once  as  will  be  entirely  consumed,  that  all 
may  come  to  the  next  meal  with  sharp  appetites.  The 
most  perfect  development  does  not  depend  so  much  upon 


124  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

the  large  quantity  they  can  be  made  to  consume,  as  upon 
the  quantity  they  properly  digest  and  assimilate.  Next 
to  good  food  for  the  appetite,  a  good  appetite  for  the  food 
is  desirable,  and  should  be  carefully  promoted  ;  the  hog 
that  refuses  to  eat,  even  for  a  single  day,  is  set  back  in 
his  fattening  for  two  or  three  days,  and  sometimes  for  a 
fortnight.  In  fact,  the  failure  of  a  hog's  appetite  denotes 
something  radically  wrong  with  him,  if  not  with  the 
entire  herd  and  its  management.  The  quantity  of  food 
will  vary  somewhat,  and  usually  in  frosty  or  freezing 
weather,  more  will  be  eaten,  to  maintain  the  animal  heat, 
than  when  the  temperature  is  higher  and  the  atmosphere 
contains  considerable  moisture.  Good  feeding  consists  in 
giving  every  particle  the  hogs  will  eat,  without  le-mn^ 
any,  or  losing  their  appetites,  and  to  accomplish  this,  in- 
telligent care  and  close  observation  are  necessary.  The 
old  saying,  that  the  lazy  farmer,  who  sits  on  the  fence 
watching  his  hogs  until  they  are  through  eating,  gener- 
ally markets  the  heaviest  pork,  is  in  exemplification  of 
the  rules  of  proper  care  in  feeding.  Quiet  and  comfort 
are  indispensable  to  thrift,  so  dogs  and  boisterous  boys 
should  be  kept  away  from  the  feed  lots  and  pens.  We 
have  always  found  it  convenient  to  accustom  our  hogs  to 
some  particular  call,  which  will  bring  them  together,  and 
sometimes  they  can  thus  be  called  into  places  where  it 
would  be  about  impossible  to  drive  them. 

We  salt  our  own  hogs,  by  putting  small  quantities  in 
their  swill,  and  sulphur  is  given  in  the  same  way.  Bitu- 
minous or  soft  coal,  charcoal,  wood  ashes,  and  rotten 
wood,  are  relished  by  hogs  as  condiments,  and  we  think 
that  these  should  be  kept  within  their  reach. 

Comfortable,  sheltered  beds,  not  too  deep  and  dusty, 
are  equivalent  to  a  considerable  amount  of  food,  as  stock 
suffering  from  cold  cannot  thrive,  and  to  warm  them 
with  grain,  applied  internally,  is  much  more  expensive 
than  good  nests  and  shelter,  applied  externally. 


FATTENING.  125 

One  hundred  pounds  of  pork  from  ten  bushels  of  corn, 
is  the  usual  estimate  made  by  western  farmers  who  feed 
whole  corn,  but  fed  in  a  different  form,  and  in  conjunc- 
tion with  other  food,  it  will  make  much  more,  as  has 
been  many  times  fully  demonstrated  by  careful  feeders, 
both  in  America  and  Europe.  The  example  of  the  farm- 
ers in  the  New  England  States  is  valuable,  as  they  are 
noted  for  raising  the  best  of  pork  with  small  corn  crops, 
and  no  "  cholera."  The  general  method  pursued 

"Is  to  commence  fattening  by  boiling  potatoes,  pumpkins, 
apples,  or  other  vegetables,  and  mix  a  little  bran,  shorts,  or  pro- 
vender, with  the  cooked  vegetables  when  hot,  thus  thoroughly 
cooking  the  meal.  It  is  then  placed  in  tubs  or  vats,  and  allowed 
to  slightly  ferment,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  The  amount  of  meal 
is  gradually  increased  until  near  killing  time,  when  meal  well 
cooked  is  given  alone. 

"  The  meal  ia  composed  of  oats,  buckwheat,  and  corn,  or  any 
other  coarse  grain,  or  of  any  two  of  them,  generally  finishing  with 
corn  meal  alone.  Thus  treated,  they  fatten  much  faster  than  on 
dry  corn,  and  at  much  less  expense.  It  costs  more  labor,  but  at  a 
season  when  it  can  be  well  spared,  and  it  is  well  recompensed. 

"  Th'j  English  system  is  still  more  diversified.  They  use  all 
kinds  of  vegetables — potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  beets,  peas,  beans, 
barley,  and  oats;  the  grain  steamed  or  ground;  the  vegetables 
cooked  and  mixed  with  slop  from  the  house,  dairy,  distillery, 
brewery,  etc.  Even  grass  and  clover  is  cut  and  mixed  with  the 
feed,  and  almost  every  substance  of  light  cost  and  any  nutriment, 
is  nicely  prepared  and  finds  a  ready  market  in  the  maw  of  the  om- 
nivorous hog." 

We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  arguing,  in  this 
chapter,  or  in  this  book,  that  corn  is  not  a  suitable  food 
for  swine,  or  that  it  is  not  the  best  single  fat-producing 
material  for  the  money  in  the  world,  for  general  use  ;  but 
would  enforce  the  fact  that  a  variety  is  essential  to  per- 
fect health  and  development  in  all  animals,  and  a  single 
article  of  food  becomss  satisfactory  to  none, — not  even  to 
a  hog. 

A  very  satisfactory  method  of  fattening  hogs,  largely 


126  SWINE  lit  >I;AM>KV. 

practised  in  the  west  by  those  who  "stall  feed"  cattle, 
is  to  put  shotes,  of  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  weight,  with  the  cattle  whenever  grain  feeding  is 
begun — generally  about  the  first  of  October — at  the  rate 
of  fifteen  to  twenty  shotes  to  ten  steers,  the  number  de- 
pending on  the  amount  of  grain  used,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  placed  before  the  cattle.  In  the  fine  weather 
of  fall  and  early  winter,  it  is  common  to  feed  corn  in  the 
fodder,  or  in  the  shuck,  by  throwing  it  upon  the  grass 
in  the  pasture  ;  the  favorite  way  is  to  feed  in  two  differ- 
ent enclosures,  and  each  day  to  turn  the  hogs  into  the  one 
where  the  cattle  were  fed  the  day  previous  ;  this  enables 
them  to  pick  up  the  leavings  of  the  cattle,  without 
trampling  on  and  over  the  day's  feed,  until  the  cattle  have 
eaten  as  much  of  it  as  they  wish. 

When  full  feed  is  given  to  cattle  in  this  way,  about  two 
shotes  to  each  steer  is  not  too  many,  but  when  corn  is 
fed  in  tight  boxes  and  troughs,  so  that  but  a  small  pro- 
portion is  scattered,  from  one  shote  to  one  and  a  half  per 
steer  will  keep  the  feed  lots  well  gleaned. 

If  a  greater  number  are  kept,  they  will  need  to  have 
extra  grain  given  them,  in  order  to  fatten  rapidly  ;  but  if 
simply  growth  is  the  object,  three  shotes  will  fare  pretty 
well  in  following  each  stoer  that  is  on  full  feed. 

The  grain  voided  whole  by  the  cattle  seems  to  be  so 
softened  and  so  digestible,  that  hogs  thrive  on  it  amazing- 
ly, so  that  the  larger  ones  are  soon  in  a  condition  for 
market,  and  others  can  occupy  their  places  in  the  feeding 
lots. 

Hogs  seldom  fatten  more  satisfactorily,  rapidly,  or  with 
less  outlay  of  labor,  than  when  handled  in  this  way,  and 
the  plan  is  justly  held  in  high  favor,  from  the  fact  that 
every  pound  of  increase  from  the  droppings  and  scattered 
corn  is  clear  gain,  none  of  which  could  be  utilized  with- 
out the  much-abused  hog. 

One  common  defect  in  this  method  of  managing  hogs 


COOKING    FOOD    FOB   SWINE.  127 

is,  that  they  are  not  generally  provided  with  suitable 
sleeping  quarters,  where  they  can  be  comfortable,  without 
crowding,  and  out  of  danger  of  being  trampled  and 
horned  by  the  cattle. 

Autumn,  with  its  mild  weather,  is  the  profitable  season 
for  making  pork  and  lard,  and  hogs  not  fed  with  cattle, 
should  be  far  along  in  their  fattening  before  severe  winter 
weather  sets  in.  When  hogs  become  so  fat  as  to  get  up 
and  about  with  difficulty,  it  is  a  loss  to  feed  them  longer, 
and  the  packer  and  the  barrel  should'  take  them  in. 

In  feeding  soft  or  cooked  food,  a  kerosene  barrel 
mounted  on  wheels  will  answer,  but  where  something  not 
quite  so  high,  and  less  circumscribed  at  the  top  can  be 
constructed,  it  will  be  found  more  convenient. 


CHAPTER    XV. 
COOKING  FOOD  FOR  SWINE.— FOOD  COOKERS. 

The  question  as  to  the  economy  and  general  desirability 
of  cooking  food  for  swine,  has  long  been  a  subject  of  dis- 
cussion and  speculation,  yet  there  probably  is  quite  as 
much  diversity  of  opinion,  among  farmers  in  general  at 
the  present  day,  as  at  any  previous  time. 

The  surrounding  conditions  and  circumstances,  have 
much  to  do  in  deciding  the  question  of  economy ;  and 
while  one  farmer,  under  certain  circumstances,  could  feed 
a  considerable  portion  of  cooked  grain  and  secure  satis- 
factory returns  therefor,  another,  differently  situated, 
though  perhaps  in  the  same  neighborhood,  and  raising 
the  same  class  of  swine,  might  be  unable  to  do  so  without 
actual  loss. 

Under  favorable  circumstances  many  have,  by  careful 
experiments,  thoroughly  satisfied  themselves  that  the 


128  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

practice  of  cooking  is  largely  profitable,  and  others,  from 
experiments  fully  as  careful  and  thorough,  have  arrived 
at  conclusions  directly  the  reverse. 

There  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt  that  cooking  hard,  dry 
corn,  renders  it  more  easy  of  digestion,  enabling  the  ani- 
mal to  extract  the  maximum  of  nutritive  material  it  con- 
tains, and  that,  ordinarily,  fed  in  this  form  and  of  the 
proper  consistency,  it  affords  a  larger  percentage  of  flesh 
and  fat,  than  if  fed  in  the  raw  state.  A  large  majority, 
we  think,  of  those  who  have  given  attention  to  the  sub- 
ject, admit  this  ;  at  the  same  time,  a  respectable  and  in- 
telligent minority,  vote  nay.  That  it  is  practically  profit- 
able, on  a  majority  of  farms,  to  pursue  a  system  of  cook- 
ing the  food  for  large  stocks  of  swine,  is  not  generally 
conceded. 

Among  the  reasons  for  regarding  cooking  as  impracti- 
cable, are,  the  scarcity  of  timber  for  fuel,  the  extra  labor 
involved,  and  the  general  lack  of  fixtures  and  facilities 
for  cooking,  and  feeding  the  food  in  its  cooked  state. 

Vast  numbers  of  those  whose  farms  are  located  in  tho 
best  corn-growing  regions,  would,  by  the  single  item  of 
fuel,  be  deterred  from  undertaking  it,  even  if  convinced 
that  cooking  would  give,  from  the  cooked  food,  a  con- 
siderable increase  of  flesh  and  fat  over  that  consumed  raw. 

Others,  with  fuel  convenient  and  abundant,  and  fully 
satisfied  of  the  importance  and  economy  of  feeding  cooked 
grain,  are  practically  prevented  from  carrying  out  their 
convictions,  by  the  scarcity  and  expense  of  reliable,  intel- 
ligent help.  There  are  others  still,  with  so  much  wood 
and  timber,  that  it  is  a  burden,  and  who  have  help  to 
spare,  yet  having  no  very  decided  views  for  or  against 
cooking,  suppose  that  some  hundreds  of  dollars  would 
have  to  be  expended  in  buying,  fitting  up,  and  learning 
to  use  the  very  simplest  apparatus  that  would  possibly 
answer.  We  shall  try  to  disabuse  the  minds  of  this  last- 
mentioned  classs  further  on  in  this  chapter. 


COOKING   FOOD   FOB   SWINE.  129 

The  Messrs.  H.  M.  &  W.  P.  Sisson,  of  Galesburg,  Illi- 
nois, in  a  pre-eminently  prairie  country,  are  uncommonly 
successful  breeders  of  swine  in  large  numbers,  and,  at 
some  seasons  of  tiij  year,  use  a  considerable  quantity  of 
cooked  food.  Knowing  them  to  be  practical  men,  pursu- 
ing their  business  for  profit,  rather  than  for  the  purpose 
of  demonstrating  any  preconceived  theories,  we  solicited 
of  them  a  statement  of  their  conclusions,  from  experience, 
as  to  the  profit  and  desirability  of  cooking  food  for  swine, 
on  a  small,  medium,  and  large  scale.  In  their  reply,  they 
express  views  so  nearly  identical  with  those  entertained 
by  us,  that  we  cheerfully  present  their  conclusions  in  lieu 
of  our  own.  They  write  : 

"  We  have  been  cooking  food  for  hogs,  more  or  less,  for 
the  last  six  or  eight  years,  and  we  state  as  the  result  of  our 
experience  and  observation,  that  in  the  great  hog  and 
corn  producing  States,  cooking  food  for  hogs,  generally, 
will  not  pay ;  still,  there  are  times  and  circumstances 
which  will  make  cooking,  to  a  limited  extent,  profitable. 

' '  We  do  not  think  it  profitable  to  cook  corn,  or  meal, 
for  hogs,  whenever  they  can  have  access  to  good,  tender 
grass,  and  the  temperature  is  such  that  corn  can  be  soaked 
in  water.  Soaking  will  then  answer  every  purpose,  but 
in  winter,  when  there  is  no  grass,  and  dry  corn  is  the 
principal  food,  is  the  time  that  cooking  will  pay,  if  ever. 

"  Hogs  need  something  besides  dry  corn,  (it  is  too  con- 
centrated), something  with  more  bulk  ;  and  to  meet  this 
requirement,  we  do  some  cooking.  If  a  slop  is  made  of 
corn  and  oat  meal,  middlings  and  bran,  and  finished  up 
with  potatoes,  pumpkins,  or  squashes,  all  well  cooked, 
and  fed  in  connection  with.dry  corn,  we  think  the  advan- 
tage will  be  very  apparent. 

"  It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  this  should  be  fed 
more  than  once  a  day,  but  pigs,  especially,  should  have 
enough,  once  a  day,  to  fill  up  and  properly  distend  the 


130  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

stomach.  In  speaking  of  pigs,  we  mean  those  six  months 
old,  or  more. 

"  It  is  our  opinion,  that  the  disease  known  as  hog  chol- 
era, is  very  largely  occasioned  by  the  almost  exclusive  use 
of  corn.  Hogs  should  have  a  variety  of  food  ;  they  need 
something  besides  corn;  oats,  bran,  potatoes,  etc.,  fed 
for  a  change,  and  for  variety,  are  very  beneficial. 

"  We  use  a  simple  pan,  or  boiler,  that  has  an  iron  bot- 
tom and  ends,  with  plank  sides,  so  that  the  contents  can 
be  drawn  off  into  a  vat.  The  boiler  has  a  light  cover, 
and  is  about  eight  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  fifteen 
inches  deep.  Such  an  arrangement  is  cheap,  and  can  be 
made  profitable,  principally  in  winter. 

"  We  will  say,  in  conclusion,  that  we  do  not  believe 
that  it  will  pay,  either  on  a  small,  medium,  or  large  scale, 
to  generally  substitute  cooked  for  uncooked  food,  for 
hogs  in  the  great  hog  and  corn-produciifg  regions  of  the 
West/" 

Mr.  Thomas  Wood,  the  successful  breeder  of  Chester 
Whites,  mentioned  in  another  chapter,  writes  us  : 

"  For  the  last  eight  or  ten  years,  I  have  cooked  feed 
for  my  hogs,  and  with  the  steamer  that  I  have  fixed  up 

1  can  make  one  or  two  hogsheads  of  mush  at  a  time.     I 
cook  food  as  a  matter  of  economy,  believing  that  about 
one-fourth  the  grain  is  saved  thereby.    I  generally  feed  of 
corn  two  parts,  and  oats  one  part,  ground  together,  and 
with  this  I  feed  considerable  whole  corn,  particularly  in 
the  fall  before  it  gets  hard  and  dry.    Feed,  when  cooked, 
should  be  allowed  to  get  nearly  cold  before  it  is  given  to 
the  hogs. 

6 ( A  few  days  ago,  I  weighed  and  put  in  separate  pens, 
two  sows,  in  every  way  the  same,  and  of  the  same  litter. 
No.  1  weighed  292  Ibs.,  and  No.  2  weighed  280  Ibs.  I 
fed  No.  1  for  17  days  on  unground  corn,  cooked;  she  con- 
sumed 2  bushels  and  21  quarts,  and  gained  36  Ibs.  No. 

2  I  fed  the  same  length  of  time,  on  whole  corn,  raw,  of 


COOKING   FOOD   FOR   SWINE. 

which  she  consumed  3  bushels  and  13  quarts,  and  gained 
30  Ibs. 

"  The  summer  before  the  above  experiment  was  made, 
I  fed  eight  shotes  with  corn  and  oats,  (one  part  oats,  and 
two  parts  corn),  ground,  #nd  made  it  into  well-cooked 
mush,  and  frequently  weighed  them,  in  order  to  see  if  it 
would  pay  to  make  pork  at  the  then  ruling  prices  of  corn 
(55c.),  oats  (40c.),  and  pork  (7c.).  The  result  was  that 
the  pork  paid  nearly  two  prices,  for  the  corn  and  oats, 
while  the  manure  paid  for  the  labor." 

U.  H.  Stowe,  of  Indiana,  had  four  pigs  of  a  litter, 
which  weighed  245  Ibs.  each,  and  four  of  another  litter 
that  weighed  170  Ibs.  each.  He  took  one  of  each  litter, 
and  put  in  a  pen  by  itself,  and  the  other  six  in  another 
pen,  and  gave  both  an  equal  chance,  allowing  both  as 
much  good,  sound  corn  as  they  could  eat,  for  six  weeks. 
The  corn  fed  to  the  six  was  thoroughly  cooked  whole, 
and  that  fed  to  the  two  was  raw,  and  fed  in  the  usual  way. 

The  hogs  on  the  raw  corn  gained  ten  pounds  to  the 
bushel,  and  those  fed  on  the  cooked  corn  gained  just  fif- 
teen pounds  to  the  bushel  consumed. 

Prof.  Wilkinson,  of  Baltimore,  says  :  "  I  conducted 
an  agricultural  school  and  experimental  farm  for  eight 
years,  and  experimented  with  feeding  cooked  food^  of 
every  description  used  for  cows,  horses,  swine,  working 
and  fattening  cattle,  and  poultry,  and  carefully  noted  the 
results.  These  were  in  all  cases  very  remunerative  ;  so 
much  so,  that  even  with  the  defective,  inconvenient,  and 
expensive  apparatus  used — for  want  of  bettor — in  steam- 
ing, manipulating,  and  feeding,  I  found  there  was  an 
average  profit  of  fully  25  per  cent." 

THE  EXPERIMENTS  OF   S.    H.  CLAY. 

Readers  of  agricultural  papers  have,  no  doubt,  fre- 
quently seen  allusions  to  experiments  made  by  Mr.  S.  H 
Clay,  of  Paris,  Ky.,  in  cooking  food  for  swine, 


132  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

Mr.  Clay  was  an  extensive  breeder  of  Berkshires,  being 
the  gentleman  to  whom  was  awarded  the  grand  prize  of 
$1,000,  for  the  finest  display  of  swine  at  the  National 
Swine  Exposition,  in  Chicago,  September,  1871.  He 
made  these  experiments  to  settle,  in  his  own  mind,  the 
question  as  to  what  extent,  and  under  what  circum- 
stances, cooking  food  could  be  profitably  followed. 

The  experiments  were  begun  July  16th,  with  six  bar- 
rows, each  about  twelve  months  old,  at  which  time  they 
weighed  as  follows : 

No.  1 255  pounds. 

"    2 285        " 

"    8 240 

"    4 240 

"    5 265 

"    6 245        " 

They  were  fed  together  for  twelve  days  on  cooked  corn 
meal,  reduced   to   such  a  consistency  that  the  an  in  mis 
could  readily  drink  it.     At  the  end  of  twelve  days,  they 
were  separated,  when  each  pig  weighed  as  follows  : 
No.  1,  294  pounds,  having  gained .-. .  .39  pounds. 


2,  S18 
;;,  SMI 
4,  270 
5,293 


88 
.80 
.80 
.98 
.87 


Nos.  1  and  2  were  put  in  a  pen  together,  and  for  30  days 
fed  on  boiled  corn,  consuming  390  pounds,  or  six  bush- 
els and  54  pounds,  upon  which  No.  1  gained  50  pounds, 
and  No.  2  gained  52  pounds,  or  together,  102  pounds. 

For  the  same  period,  Nos.  3  and  4  were  fed  together, 
in  a  pen,  on  meal,  boiled  and  reduced  to  a  thin  slop,  con- 
suming 254  pounds,  or  four  bushels  and  46  pounds,  upon 
which  No.  3  gained  30  pounds,  and  No.  4  gained  50 
pounds,  or  together,  80  pounds. 

Nos.  5  and  6  were  for  the  same  period  fed  on  dry 
corn,  consuming  405  pounds,  or  seven  bushels  and  13 
pounds.  Upon  this,  No.  5  gained  10  pounds,  and  No. 
6  gained  32  pounds,  or  together,  42  pounds. 


COOKIXG   POOD   FOR    SWINE. 


133 


The  following  will  illustrate  the  foregoing  in  tabular 
form  : 


Aos.  1  and  2. 
Soiled  Com. 

Nos.  3  and  4. 
Boiled  Meal. 

Nos.  5  and  6. 
Dry  Corn. 

6  bu.  54  Ibs. 

4  bu.  46  Ibs 

7  bu.  13  Ibs 

Gain  in  30  days 

102  Ibs 

80  Ibs. 

42  Ibs 

For*  to  1  bushel  corn  

14  "5/i  oo  Ibs. 

16  61/ioo  Ibs. 

5  «%  oo  Ibs. 

Corn  per  bushel 

28  cents. 

28  cents. 

28  cents. 

Cost  of  pork  per  Ib  

Ic.  9  mills. 

Ic.  6  mills. 

4c.  8  mills. 

At  the  end  of  the  30  days,  a  change  was  made,  and  the 
hogs  fed  as  follows :  Nos.  5  and  6,  that  had  been  fed  on 
dry  corn,  were  for  the  next  26  days  given  cooked  meal ; 
they  consumed  234  pounds  of  meal,  equal  to  4  bushels 
and  10  Ibs.  of  shelled  corn,  upon  which  No.  5  gained  40 
Ibs.,  and  No.  6  gained  34  Ibs.,  or  together  74  Ibs. 

Nos.  3  and  4,  that  had  been  fed  on  cooked  meal,  were 
fed  for  the  same  period  of  26  days,  on  dry  corn  ;  they  con- 
sumed 364  Ibs.,  or  61/,  bushels,  upon  which  No.  3  gained 
34  Ibs.,  and  No.  4  gained  10  Ibs.,  or  together  44  Ibs. 

Nos.  1  and  2  were  still  kept  on  the  diet  of  boiled  corn, 
with  about  the  same  results  as  in  the  former  trial.  The 
following  table  shows  the  results  of  the  26  days'  trial : 


Boiled  Meal. 
Nos.  5  and  6. 

Dry  Corn. 
Nos.  3  and  4. 

Consumed.                    

4  bu  10  Ibs 

6  hi  i    28  Ihs 

Gain  in  30  days 

74  Ibs 

41  ]hs 

17  7  2/1  00  Jbs 

«77/  .    ihq 

Corn  per  bushel              .       

28  cents 

2S  cents 

Cost  of  pork  per  Ib  

1  cent,  5  mills. 

4  cents  1  mill. 

It  appears  that,  during  the  twelve  days,  when  the  hogs 
were  first  put  up  together  and  fed  cooked  meal,  No.  5 
gained  25  pounds,  but  when  they  were  separated,  and  fed 
thirty  days  on  dry  corn,  the  same  hog  gained  but  10  Ibs., 
while  it  consumed  202  x/2  Ibs.  of  corn.  With  corn  at  28 
cents  per  bushel,  each  pound  of  pork  produced  would 
cost  in  this  case  10  cents  and  1  mill ;  but  when  in  the 
second  trial  the  hog  is  again  fed  on  boiled  meal,  it  con- 
sumes but  117  Ibs.  in  26  days,  and  gains  forty  pounds, 
and  gives  the  pork  gained  at  a  cost  of  one  cent  and  four 
mills  per  pound. 


134  SWINB   HUSBANDRY. 

In  the  first  period  of  twelve  days,  No.  4  made  a  gain 
of  thirty-six  pounds,  or  three  pounds  per  day,  on  the 
cooked  meal,  and  heing  continued  on  the  same  food  for 
the  thirty  days  following,  consumed  but  135  Ibs.  of 
meal,  and  gained  thereon  fifty  pounds,  at  a  cost  of  one 
cent  and  three  mills  for  each  pound  of  gain.  But  the 
same  hog,  when  fed  on  dry  corn  in  the  second  trial,  con- 
sumed 182  Ibs.  in  twenty-six  days,  and  made  a  gain  <>f 
only  ten  pounds,  at  a  cost  per  pound  of  nine  cents  and 
one  mill. 

In  his  experiment,  Mr.  Clay  obtained  from  one  bushel 
of  corn,  fed  in  the  form  of  cooked  meal,  about  the  same 
quantity  of  pork  that  he  did  from  three  bushels,  fed  with- 
out cooking  or  grinding.  In  other  words,  he  found  one 
hundred  bushels  of  dry  corn  made  him  less  pork  than  did 
forty  bushels  of  corn,  when  ground  and  cooked.  By 
cooking  the  feed,  he  was  also  enabled  to  make  one  hog 
gain  fifty  pounds,  while  another  hog,  (equal  in  all  re- 
spects), gained  on  dry  corn  but  ten  pounds  in  the  same 
length  of  time. 

That  those  gentlemen  who  believe  whole  or  raw  corn 
will  make  as  much  or  more  pork  than  when  cooked,  or 
ground,  are  not  without  reasons  for  the  faith  that  is  in 
them,  we  are  certain,  and  the  following  experiments— 
which  we  must  assume  were  made  as  carefully  as  the 
others — will  not  lessen  it.  The  first  experiment  was  made 
on  the  farm  of  the  Iowa  Agricultural  College,  by  Mr.  M. 
Stalker,  the  Superintendent,  and  as  some,  to  whom  the 
results  were  displeasing,  have  ridiculed  it,  and  sneered  at 
its  author,  as  a  "book  farmer,"  "theorist,"  and  "col- 
lege professor, "  it  is  fair  to  remark  that  those  who  know 
him,  say  he  is  a  gentleman  pre-eminently  distinguished 
for  his  strong  common  sense,  with  a  thorough  practical 
knowledge  of  the  every-day  business  of  farm  life. 

He  reports  : 

"  On  the  first  day  of  July,  (1875),  an  experiment  was  com- 


COOKING   FOOD   FOR   SWINE. 


135 


menced,  for  testing  the  comparative  value  of  different  kindg  of 
food  for  pigs.  The  food  used  was  dry  corn,  soaked  corn,  cooked 
corn,  dry  nieal,  and  cooked  meal.  Five  lots  of  pigs  were  selected, 
as  nearly  uniform  as  could  be  taken  from  a  lot  of  fifty.  Three 
pigs  were  put  in  each  pen. 

"  The  pigs  were  all  of  Berkshire  blood.  They  were  placed  in 
floored  pens,  and  given  nothing  but  their  regular  allowance  of 
food,  with  all  the  water  they  would  drink. 

"  The  corn  was  all  shelled  i.nd  weighed.  During  the  months  of 
July  and  August,  each  lot  consumed  fifteen  bushels  of  corn,  or  the 
same  amount  ground  into  meal.  The  pigs  were  carefully  weighed 
each  week,  and  a  complete  record  of  the  results  taken. 

"  During  the  last  week  in  August,  when  the  weather  was  ex- 
tremely warm,  pens  No.  4  and  5  sustained  a  small  loss,  while  Nos. 
2  and  3  made  a  slight  gain. 

44  Below  are  given  the  results. 


-f 


Weighed  July  1 1      491 

Weighed  September  1 1 675 

Gain  .77^7 I      184 

Gain  per  bushel I  12.26 


520 
_660 

140 
9.33 


m 

_618I_ 

150i 
10.00 


503i 

678| 
175 


"  519 

_676 

157 

10.46 


44  On  the  1st  day  of  September  the  pigs  were  all  put  upon  full 
feed,  each  pen  receiving  the  same  kind  of  food  as  during  the  first 
two  months. 

44  The  experiment  was  concluded  for  each  pen  when  fifteen 
bushels  had  been  consumed,  except  No.  2,  which  had  consumed 
but  13£  bushels  up  to  October  25th." 


Weighed  September  1, 
Weighed  October  23.. 
Weighed  October  25.. 
Weighed  October  28.. 
Gain" 


675 
870 


660 


618 


678 
880 


800 

780 

1401      1621 
Gain  per  bushel I   13.001   10.24|  10.801 


676 

'sis 


2021 
13.46J 


142 
9.46 


136  SWIM      HI  SHANDBY. 

4  Mr.  R.  L.  Bingham,  ot  Blooininirton,  <;nmt  munly,  Wi>ron>in, 
states  that,  after  purchasing  an  Anderson  steamer,  he  comnu  n«  .  d, 
February  15th,  an  experiment  in  feeding  nineteen  pigs,  about  nine- 
teen weeks  old,  a  cross  of  Berkshire  with  common  stock.  Prior  to 
the  experiment,  the  pigs  hod  the  run  of  the  farm,  ami  had  1><  <  n  fed 
as  much  raw  corn  as  they  would  eat.  Then  for  a  period  of  twenty- 
eight  days,  they  were  fed  as  before,  with  corn  In  the  ear  and  ali 
the  water  they  could  drink.  At  the  close  of  this  period,  the  total 
gain  in  weight  was  667  !bs.,  made  from  feeding  55  bushels  ot  com 
—  a  gain  of  12  Ibs.  for  each  bushel  of  corn.  They  were  then  fed 
with  thick  mush,  made  by  bringing  the  water  to  a  boiling  heat,  and 
then  stirring  i.i  the  meal  ground  fine,  with  the  steam  still  on,  allow- 
ing the  meal  to  cook  five  to  ton  minutes,  and  adding  salt;  tliil  mtA 
fed  to  them  warm,  thre3  times  a  day,  as  much  as  they  would  eat 
clean.  At  the  en:l  of  twenty  -eight  days  they  were  again  weighed, 
showing  a  gain  of  676  Ibs.,  made  on  75  bushels  ot  corn,  leas  toll— 
a  gain  of  9  Ibs.  for  rar-h  bushel  of  corn  consumed.  He  then  put 
11  of  the  pigs  on  raw  corn  again,  continuing  to  iced  the  others  with 
cooked  meal.  May  25,  after  a  trial  ot  six  weeks,  those  on  raw  corn 
averaged  a  gain  of  44  Ibs.  each,  ana  the  others  an  average  gain  of 
37  Ibs." 

Prof.  Henry,  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  has 
summarized  all  the  most  carefully  made  experiments  at 
educational  institutions  in  America,  including  those  by 
himself,  on  a  variety  of  foods,  and  as  a  whole  they  afford 
a  wonderfully  strong  showing  against  the  practice  and 
profit  of  cooking  for  .swine.  The  showing  is  this  : 


Kxprrimmt  Station,  Wtocontin. 
Cooked  barle.v  meal  (4  trials)  was  to  uncooked  as  ...........  96.7  to  100 

Cooked  row  meal  CJ  lii.il*)  was  to  uncooked  as  .............  81.0  to  100 

Cooked  com  meal  and  *h  »rts  <•„»  trials)  wae  to  uncooked  as..  96.1  to  100 
C'ooked  whole  com  and  shorts  rj  trials)  was  to  uncooked  as.  .  85.8  to  100 

Ontario  Af/i  irnltural  CuUrgt. 
C'ooked  |  was  ('J  trials)  were  to  uncooked  as...      ...........  ;.  84.9  to  100 

^fi^'hi<|an    Agricnltural  College. 
Scalded  corn  and  oatmeal  was  to  wet  meal  as.  .     ...........  101.7  to  100 

Ktinxnn  Agricultural  College. 
Cooked  slu-lled  corn  was  to  uncooked  corn  as  ............  84.0  to  100 

/OMVI  Agricultural  College. 
Cooked  shelled  corn  (2  trials)  was  to  uncooked  as  ...........  82.3  to  100 

Cooked  corn  meal  (2  trials)  was  to  uncooked  as  .............  79.8  to  100 

Maine  Af/ricnltural  College. 
Cooked  com  meal  (9  trials)  was  to  uncooked  as  .............  82.9  to  100 

"  It  will  he  noted,"  ol>serves  Prof.  Henry,  "  that  in  every  in- 
stance but  one,  that  at  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  there 


OF   TW 

"°'  rr 

COOKING    F0 

is  a  loss  resulting  from  cooking ;  in  the  exception  the  gain  is 
very  slight,  U-ing  Irss  t  IKIII  two  per  cent.  Even  in  this  case  the 
meal  was  not  really  cooked,  but  scalded  by  boiling  water  being 
poured  on  to  the  meal  in  a  pail  and  covered  up,  while  the  other 
meal  was  fed  wet  with  water." 

Many  other  experiments  and  a  vast  fund  of  valuable 
information  have  been  collated  and  very  lucidly  presented 
in  the  elaborate  article  (Chap.  XVIII.)  prepared  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Sullivant,  of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Agriculture.""? 
High  authority  in  such  matters  has  said:  "No  man  en- 
gaged in  pork-raising  can  afford  to  pursue  his  business, 
without  giving  Mr.  Sullivant's  paper  careful  investiga- 
tion. He  will  find  there  embodied,  in  a  reasonable  space, 
a  carefully  prepared  and  full  statement  of  the  experiences 
of  many,  that  it  would  require  him  days  and  perhaps 
weeks  of  study  and  research  to  obtain." 

A   FOOD  COOKER. 

Much  money  has  been  wasted  in  the  purchase  of  vari- 
ous steamers,  boilers,  cookers,  and  similar  apparatus, 
patented,  high-priced,  and  highly  extolled,  at  least  by 
patentees,  makers,  and  venders.  Not  a  few  credulous 
persons  have  been  almost  persuaded  that,  if  possessed  of 
one  of  these  wonderful  inventions,  they  could  raise  hogs 
on  so  near  no  grain  at  all,  that  a  fortune  was  inevitable, 
if  the  business  was  well  followed. 

While  the  apparatus  of  each  different  make  has  some 
point  to  recommend  it,  no  great  number  of  meritorious 
features  are  combined  in  any  one  that  is  simple  and 
cheap,  and  we  have  observed  that  those  who  invest  in  this 
class  of  merchandise,  sooner  or  later  permit  it  to  get  out 
of  repair,  fall  into  disuse,  and  if  not  left  out  in  the 
weather,  it  is  stored  in  some  out-building,  or  corner  of 
the  barn,  while,  in  time,  the  room  it  occupies  is  looked 
upon  as  being  worth  more  than  the  old  "contraption" 
itself. 

The  royalty  to  the  inventor,  the  manufacturer's  profits, 
the  margins  to  retailers,  together  with  the  considerable 


13* 


>  \VI\K     III' -IS. \NDUY. 


freights  on  such  heavy  wares,  make  them  high  in  price 
to  the  farmers,  and  the  results  obtained  from  them  are, 
in  many  cases,  and  from  various  causes,  so  unsatisfactory, 
that  the  entire  experiment  is  regarded  as  an  expenATe 
failure. 

For  successful  operation,  and  simplicity  and  economy 
in  construction,  we  regard  an  apparatus  made  and  used 


Fig.  7.— MR.    CLAT'8  FOOD  COO! 

by  the  late  S.  H.  Clay,  of  Paris,  Ky.,  as  about  as  goody 
if  not  superior  to,  any  patented  cooker  that  could  be 
bought  for  two  or  three  times  the  cost  of  this.  It  con- 
sists of  a  box  two  feet  wide,  and  six  or  eight  feet  long, 
and  18  to  24  inches  deep,  made  of  two-inch  hard-wood 
plank,  and  is  somewhat  wider  at  the  top  than  at  the  bot 
torn.  The  bottom  is  of  heavy  sheet  iron,  nailed  firmly 
to  the  sides  and  ends.  The  box  rests  on  brick  or  stone 
walls,  high  enough  to  give  a  plenty  of  fire-room  under- 
neath. A  trench  in  the  ground  might  do  in  lieu  of  walls. 
The  front  of  the  fire-plnce  has  a  door  of  sheet  or  cast 
iron,  with  a  damper,  by  which  to  regulate  the  fire.  The 


COOKING   FOOD   FOR   SWINE.  139 

door  is  of  sufficient  size  to  permit  the  use  of  refuse  knots, 
and  the  chunks  found  about  the  farm  or  wood-pile. 

At  the  rear  end,  a  chimney,  or  suitable  escape  for 
smoke,  is  constructed  ;  for  this  purpose  large  sized  stove- 
pipe answers  well.  In  making  the  box,  thick  white  lead 
should  be  carefully  spread  on  the  bottom  edges,  before 
nailing  on  the  iron  bottom  ;  this  will  make  it  less  likely 
to  leak. 

After  setting  the  box  on  the  walls,  earth  is  banked  up 
airainst  them;  the  earth  should  extend  up  against  the 
sides  of  the  box  somewhat,  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
smoke  and  sparks  through  the  walls. 

For  drawing  off  the  contents  of  the  box,  a  sliding  gate, 
with  a  tin  spout  under  it,  is  arranged  in  the  front  end. 
A  cover,  made  of  inch  pine,  or  other  boards,  cut  on  a 
bevel  witli  the  flaring  sides  of  the  box,  should  fit  inside 
of  it,  instead  of  on  the  top,  and  have  some  sort  of  han- 
dles at  each  end  for  convenience  in  lifting  it. 

A  few  strips  of  wood,  at  intervals,  on  the  bottom,  and 
upon  them  a  false  bottom,  with  numerous  small  perfora- 
tions, is  desirable,  as  it  will  prevent  meal,  or  other  tine 
food,  from  burning  at  the  bottom. 

Whenever  the  box  is  emptied,  it  should  be  cleaned  out 
ander  the  false  bottom,  and  if  emptied  of  food  when 
ihere  is  a  fire  below,  some  water  should  be  poured  in  at 
once,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  pan. 

With  such  an  arrangement  as  this  for  boiling  corn, 
shelled  or  in  the  ear,  potatoes,  turnips,  pumpkins,  beets, 
etc. ,  with  cheap  fuel,  and  feeding  the  mass  when  cold, 
or  but  moderately  warm,  we  believe  that  almost  any 
farmer  can  secure  a  fair  compensation  for  the  time  and 
labor  expended  in  cooking  a  goodly  portion  of  the  food 
for  his  hogs,  and  if  he  cannot  do  this,  surely  cooking 
must  be  unprofitable. 

When  it  is  more  suitable  to  soak  the  corn  than  to  cook 
it,  the  box  will  be  useful  for  this  purpose,  and  for  heat* 


140  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

iiig  water  and  scalding  hogs,  at  butchering  time,  it   will 
indeed  he  found  "  a  good  thing  to  have  in  the  family." 


CHAPTER     XVI. 
HOG    HOUSES    AND    PENS. 

We  have  seen  but  few  expensive  buildings,  erected  for 
the  use  of  swine,  that  were  in  any  great  degree  satisfac- 
tory ;  the  more  elaborate  and  expensive  these  were,  the 

los  <lr>iral)U- and  practical!}   valuable  thc\  M-.-IM.-.!    t<.  l,r. 

Large  hog  houses,  usually  bring  too  many  animals 
together,  where  lack  of  room,  ventilation,  and  exercise, 
favor  disease  and  vermin  ;  besides,  they  increase  the  diffi- 
culty of  making  suitable  arrangements  for  pasturing, 
and  fail  to  afford  sufficient  sunlight,  and  general  comfort. 

On  most  farms,  a  small  or  large  number  of  swine  can 
be  provided  with  comfortable  housing  from  such  material, 
and  of  such  construction,  as  will  readily  suggest  them- 
selves to  almost  any  man  fit  to  be  entrusted  with  the  care 
of  stock. 

Sleeping  apartments  should  be  enclosed  on  the  north- 
east, and  on  the  west,  with  a  tight  wall  of  stone,  boards, 
logs,  or  even  hay  or  straw,  covered  well ;  in  lieu  of  some- 
thing better,  hay  or  straw  makes  a  very  good  roof.  The 
apartments  should  be  open,  and  front  the  south,  to  admit 
light  and  warmth  from  the  sun,  and  should  be  provided 
with  fresh  bedding.  Such  house  will,  perhaps,  answer  as 
well  as  one  constructed  after  the  elaborate  plans  of  an 
architect.  Reasonable  protection  from  cold  and  storm, 
dry,  clean  bedding,  and  fresh  air  are  requisite  in  sleeping 


HOG    HOUSES    AND   PENS.  141 

apartments  for  swine,  and  the  farms  are  few  where  these 
cannot  he  secured  at  a  merely  nominal  cost. 
A  well-known  western  breeder  says : 

"  The  common  plan  of  erecting  large  buildings  for  the  rearing 
and  keeping  of  swine,  is  objectionable,  upon  the  ground  that, 
during  the  season  of  the  year  when  a  pen  is  particularly  required, 
such  buildings  are  usually  cold,  dull,  and  dark,  receiving  the  rays 
of  the  sun  only  a  few  hours  each  day. 

u  Light,  air,  and  sunshine  appear  to  be  especially  agreeable  to 
the  animals,  particularly  during  the  fall,  winter,  and  spring  months, 
ami  are  unquestionably  conducive  to  health  and  growth.  Hence, 
in  erecting  buildings,  or  pens,  for  hogs,  these  things  should  be 
especially  looked  after,  as  a  cheerful  pen  will  be  likely  to  give  you 
a  cheerful  pig." 

For  those  desiring  a  breeding  house  that  is  somewhat 
elaborate,  we  present  the  one  shown  on  pages  142  and  143, 
it  having  probably  had  as  much  careful  thought  given  it, 
by  a  practical  breeder  and  farmer,  as  any  similar  establish- 
ment in  the  country,  and  it  is  not  without  many  useful 
features  to  recommend  it. 

It  was  planned  and  erected  by  a  gentleman  of  prac- 
tical experience  for  his  farm  in  Wyandotte  County, 
Kansas. 

The  building  (fig.  8)  is  100  feet  long  by  30  feet  wide, 
built  of  first  quality  of  pine,  upon  stone  foundations,  and 
arranged  with  a  view  to  the  utmost  economy  of  time  and 
labor  in  feeding  and  care  of  the  stock. 

By  reference  to  the  ground  plan  (fig.  9),  it  will  be 
seen  that  there  are  fourteen  pens  on  each  side.  These 
are  divided  by  movable  partitions,  so  that  one  or  more 
pens  can  at  any  time  be  thrown  together  as  one.  Each 
pen  is  furnished  with  a  fender,  to  prevent  the  young  pigs 
from  being  overlaid  and  smothered  by  the  sow. 

Through  the  centre  of  the  building  is  a  drive-way,  12 
feet  wide,  through  which  runs  a  wooden  track  and  truck- 
car,  for  carrying  barrels  of  feed  from  the  steamer  and 
feed  rooms.  Each  of  the  troughs  extends  through  the 


CVVINE    rlUSBANDEY. 


.HOG    HOUSES   AND   PENS. 


143 


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144  8 WINE   HUSBANDRY. 

partition  between  the  pens  and  the  drive-way,  so  th.it 
feed  can  be  poured  into  them  from  the  outside,  without 
interference  from  the  animals  within. 

All  of  the  pens  open  into  outside  lots,  (it  was  found 
impracticable  to  show  them  all  in  the  view),  the  gates 
between  them  forming,  when  open,  an  alley,  through 
which  animals  can  be  readily  moved  from  one  portion  to 
another,  and  manure  wheeled  out  to  the  compost  heap. 

Fresh  spring  water  runs  through  all  the  out-lots  on 
either  side  of  the  building,  and  extensive  clou-r  pM-tmvs 
are  accessible  from  the  north,  east,  and  south. 

Its  owner  raised  hogs  by  the  hundred,  and  claims 
for  this  establishment  that  it  economizes  labor,  and  affords 
excellent  care  and  protection  to  a  large  number  of  ani- 
mals, giving  warmth  in  winter,  ami  shelter  ami  u-ntila- 
tion  in  summer. 

By  opening  the  largo  doors  at  each  en  1  of  the  building, 
and  the  fourteen  small  doors  on  each  side,  the  freest  Ten- 
tilation  is  secured  in  both  directions  ;  the  interior  walls 
of  the  pens  are,  of  course,  but  a  few  feet  high,  and  the 
space  above  them  open. 

In  its  owner's  opinion,  the  abundant  clover  pastures 
adjacent,  and  the  strong,  never-failing  springs,  constantly 
supplying  an  abundance  of  the  purest  water,  aro  among 
the  chief  recommendations  of  this  structure,  and  they 
are  prime  necessities  to  the  success  of  any  other  swine- 
breeding  establishment. 

Mr.  Charles  Snoad,  Secretary  of  the  National  Associa- 
tion of  Swine  Breeders,  contributes  to  the  Prairie  Farmer 
Annual  the  plan  of  an  inexpensive  house  for  swine,  a 
view  of  which  is  given  in  figure  10,  and  a  plan  in  figure 
11.  Of  this  building  Mr.  Snoad  says  : 

"The  plan  submitted  is  one  I  have  just  adopted,  and,  as  will  be 
observed,  it  is  so  simply  constructed,  that  it  can  be  b::ilt  by  almost 
any  farmer. 

"  The  importance  of  a  southern  exposure,  for  tbe  continued  good 


HOG    HOUSES    AND    PENS. 


145 


health  and  comfort  of  all  animals  during  the  fall,  winter,  and 
spring  months,  will  hardly  be  questioned.  In  erecting  large  build- 
ings on  the  usual  plan,  these  advantages  are  almost  wholly  lost 
sight  of.  This  building  is  70  feet  in  length,  and  16  feet  in  width, 


Fig.  10.— VIEW  OP  MB.   SNOAD'S  PIGGBRY. 

Including  front  pktforra.    The  cost  of  it  will  not  exceed  $100, 
with  lumber  from  $17  to  $21  per  thousand.  , 

"  The  roof  is  of  stock  boards,  with  a  groove  cut  in  each  edge, 
and  battened.  For  cooking  or  preparing  food  for  the  stock,  or  for 
the  storage  of  grain,  a  portion  of  the  building  may  be  appro- 


U 
A 

A 

A 

fl 

ROOM 
2!  X  14 

8X14 
1 

>                      1 

8X14 

)                     I 

p  

)              : 

D     - 

C 

Fig.  11.-  PLAN  OF  MR.  SNOAD'S  PIGGERT. 

(The  sash  doors  are  designed  to  swing  in,  and  the  gates  to  swing  back  over  the 

troughs,  whUe putting  in  food.)    A,  A,  Pens,  8x14  feet ;  S,  B,  Feed  Troughs; 

C,  Platform  in  front,  two  feet  wide ;  D,  D,  Z>,  Doors. 

priateil,  adding  to  the  hight,  length,  or  width,  to  suit  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  proprietor.     Such  changes  in   the  division  of  pens 
may  also  be  made  as  may  be  deemed  best. 
"  The  most  important  features  claimed  are  :  warmth,  light,  air, 

7 


146  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

and  sunshine.  It  may  be  considered  an  objection,  to  be  obliged  to 
feed  from  the  outside  of  the  building,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
comfort  and  thrift  of  the  animals,  will  more  than  c -MIUJM -n>.-,te  for 
this  apparent  additional  trouble.  Many  a  cold,  cutting  day,  may 
be  made  one  of  comfort  and  warmth,  by  taking  advantage  of  the 
sunshine. 

"In  locating  the  storage  and  cooking  room,  the  point  best 
adapted  to  the  demands  of  the  case,  should  be  selected.  If  it  is 
more  convenient  to  do  the  cooking  near  the  residence,  I  should 
have  it  done  there,  in  preference  to  using  a  part  of  the  phrirery. 

"Many  of  the  steamers  or  boilers  now  in  use,  can  be  placed  in  a 
very  small  room,  and  frequently  in  the  dwelling  house,  conducting 
the  steam  to  the  point  desired  for  cooking  the  food,  through  iron 
gas  pipe. 

"Modifications  and  changes  are  necessary  in  almot  all  plan-,  to 
adapt  them  to  the  wants  of  different  individuals  and  location^." 

An  Illinois  feeder  gives  in  the  Stock  Journal.  IVk, 
1877,  the  plan  of  a  good  feeding  floor  and  pen,  as  follows : 

"A  floor  30x30  feet  will  give  room  enough- to  feed  100  \«  rjn 
hogs,  and  may  be  made  to  do  twice  that  service,  by  feeding  a  M •<•- 
ond  lot  after  the  first  have  had  lime  to  eat,  as  I  have  frequently 
done  for  months  at  a  time,  and  with  good  satisfaction.  The  floor 
should  be  divided,  leaving  each  part  30  x  15  feet,  and  each  accom- 
modating from  50  to  00  hogs  at  once,  which,  I  think,  is  as  many  as 
ought  to  be  fed  together.  The  lumber  necessary  for  such  floor  is 
about  as  follows : 

3  pieces  6x8,  for  sills,     30  feet  long 860  feet 

16      "       2x8,   "  joists,  16       "         320   " 

16      "       2x8,   "      "      14       "         280   »« 

1,800  feet      2x6,   "  floor 1,800   «• 

Common  lumber,  to  enclose  (5  feet  high) ....    600    " 

Total 3,360   " 

except  posts,  which  may  be  set  upon  the  sill  or  into  the  ground, 
and  will  not  add  materially  to  the  expense — if  on  the  sill,  then  28 
pieces  4  x  4,  5  feet  long,  175  feet,  and  lumber  for  division,  100  feet ; 
lumber,  all  told,  3,635  feet,  costing  here  $13  per  thousand,  or 
$47.25  for  the  whole.  The  floor  might  be  made  of  inch  lumber, 
instead  of  two-inch,  as  in  the  bill,  but  is  not  so  good,  nor  is  it 
cheaper  in  the  end. 

"  The  sleeping  place  I  prefer,  should  not  be  less  than  30  or  40  feet 
from  the  feed  floor,  as  less  manure  will  be  taken  there,  and  it  will 


HOG    HOUSES    AND    PENS.  147 

seldom  be  wet,  as  is  sure  to  be  the  case  if  adjoining.  The  sleep- 
ing house  site,  as  well  as  the  intervening  space,  should  be  raised 
or  filled  up  several  inches  higher  than  the  surrounding  ground,  to 
prevent  surface  water  from  running  in,  and  also  to  afford  drainage. 
Set  the  house  on  this  :  14  x  32  feet,  [mine  is],  high  side  9  feet,  low 
side  6  feet,  shed  roof,  of  common  boards ;  requiring  in  all — for 
siding,  roofs,  and  division — about  1,400  feet  of  common  lumber, 
and  a  few  pieces  of  scantling  or  .straight  hard  wood  poles  to  nail 
to  and  support  the  roof ;  then  add  six  or  eight  inches  of  sand  or 
sawdust  to  the  floor  and  the  intervening  space,  and  you  will  have 
no  mud." 

When  but  few  pigs  are  kept,  or  it  is  desired  to  keep  up 
a  small  number  for  some  particular  purpose,  they  can  in 
spring,  summer,  and  early  fall  in  many  cases,  be  kept  ad- 
vantageously in  small  portable  pens,  which  can  be  moved  a 
few  feet  every  day  or  two  ;  by  doing  this  the  pigs  can  have 
the  benefit  of  fresh  clean  earth  and  grass  continually. 

For  easy  handling,  such  pens  should  be  light,  and  are 
best  made  of  pine  lumber,  the  size  of  the  pens  varying 
according  to  the  length  of  the  boards  used,  from  10  to 
1 6  feet,  and  these  may  be  4,  5  or  6  inches  wide — the  lat- 
ter being  much  the  best  for  strength. 

Instead  of  nailing  the  lumber  to  small  corner  posts, 
we  find  it  better  to  make  four  separate  panels,  nailing 
the  lumber  firmly  with  wrought  nails,  to  cross-pieces  or 
cleats,  of  good  6-inch  boards,  as  long  as  the  pen  is  to  be 
high,  three  to  each  panel,  and  when  set  up,  keeping  se- 
cured by  some  sort  of  flexible  fastening. 

When  nailed  together  at  the  corners,  the  frequent 
moving  of  the  pen  wrenches  and  breaks  the  nailed  cor- 
ners loose,  and  the  pen  becomes  a  wreck,  a  result  which 
cannot  occur  when  the  parts  are  jointed. 

If  a  pen  14  or  16  feet  square  is  built,  it  is  sometimes 
convenient  to  have  an  extra  panel,  which  will  fit  down  in 
the  middle  of  it,  between  cleats,  which  will  at  once  con- 
vert the  one  pen  into  two  of  half  its  size. 

These  pens    should  be    provided  with   a   convenient 


146  8WINB   HUSBANDRY. 

trough,  and  some  sort  of  temporary  roof,  over  one 
or  corner,  at  least  sufficient  to  afford  a  good  shade  at  all 
times  of  the  day,  which,  with  plenty  of  water,  is  indis- 
pensable. 

We  have  found  a  movable  pen  or  two,  quite  a  necessity 
in  the  summer  season,  but  cannot  recommend  any  pen, 
that  is  so  light  and  airy  as  this,  for  cold  weather. 

It  frequently  happens,  on  a  farm  where  machinery  is 
used,  that  four  wheels  may  be  found ,  from  6  to  24  in 
in  diameter,  that  may  bo  fastened  to  the  corners  of 
movable  ]xm,  on  which   it  muy  be  moved  with   facility 
from  place  to  place,  without  much  effort,  or,  suit 
wooden  wheels,  of  any  size  or  number,  can  be  mu<i 
the  transverse  sections  of  a  solid  hard-wood  log,  and  at- 
tached to  the  IH-II,  to  enable  it  to  be  moved  with  ease. 

On  nearly  every  farm,  one  or  more  well  constructed 
movable  pms  will  be  found  a  good  investment,  as  a  few 
pigs  can  )>e  kept  clean  and  healthy  in  these,  if  moved 
often  on  solid  ground,  with  less  trouble  than  in  any  other 
way  ;  the  farmer  who  tries  them  will  not  readily  re-adopt 
the  old-time  four-rail-square  |>en,  that  stood  in  the  Bams 
place  for  a  dozen  or  more  years. 

In  whatever  style  the  ]>en  may  U-  built,  we  would 
impress  on  the  builder  the  convenience  and  importance 
of  having  the  troughs  level,  with  cross-sluts  on  top,  six 
or  eight  inches  apart ,  and  arranged  so  that  feed  can  be 
poured  into  their  entire  length  from  the  outside  of  the  pen. 
These  assist  in  the  more  equal  distribution  of  the  feed, 
enable  each  animal  to  secure  its  share,  prevent  the 
stronger  from  monopolizing  and  fouling  the  trough,  by 
standing  lengthwise  in  it,  and  also  enable  the  attendant 
to  feed  without  being  jostled,  or  charged  upon,  by  the 
always  im]x>rtun:ite  swine. 

Feeding  a  dozen  or  more  hogs,  by  pouring  slops  into 
one  end  of  a  long  ojx?n  trough,  is  excellent  for  two  <T 
three  of  the  strongest  animals,  but  the  others  usually  have 


8LAr<;im:i:i\<..  -  i  ttHG,  AND  PRESERVING.         140 

to  stand  back,  and  be  content  with  so  much,  or  so  little, 
of  the  feed  as  their  more  powerful  companions  reluctant- 
ly leave,  for  want  of  more  capacious  stomachs. 

Troughs  are  much  more  durable  if  made  of  good  sound 
oak,  or  other  hard  wood,  than  of  pine,  as  hogs  some- 
times get  into  a  habit  of  gnawing  them  for  the  taste  of 
something  that  has  soaked  into  the  wood,  and  a  pine 
trough  is,  in  this  way,  soon  destroyed. 


CHAPT'ER     XVII. 
SLAUGHTERING,   CURING,   AND   PRESERVING. 

Every  experiment  wo  know  of,  that  has  been  made 
to  ascertain  whether  it  was  more  profitable  to  the  pro- 
ducer to  sell  his  hogs  alive,  or  kill,  and  cure  the  pork 
on  the  farm,  and  then  market  it,  indicates  that,  in  most 
years,  the  farmer  may  realize  more  profitable  returns 
by  marketing  the  cured  product.  In  fact,  we  have  seen 
but  few  intelligent  farmers  who  did  not  admit  this,  but 
as  they  generally  need  the  money  represented  in  the  year's 
hog  crop,  by  the  time  the  hogs  are  ready  for  market,  they 
prefer  to  realize  on  them  at  once,  rather  than  assume  the 
risk  and  wait  the  longer  time  necessary  to  successful 
curing,  especially  with  the  poor  facilities  many  of  them 
possess  for  this  branch  of  the  business.  x 

A  lot  of  uniform,  well  fattened  hogs  represent  cash, 
any  day  in  the  year,  at  any  point  in  the  country  ;  hence 
the  temptation  to  dispose  of  them  as  soon  as  the  proper 
condition  is  reached,  is  exceedingly  strong.  This,  no 
doubt,  accounts  in  a  large  degree  for  the  fact,  that  the 
bulk  of  the  hog  crop  raised,  is  sold  on  foot  to  drovers  and 
shippers,  to  be  slaughtered  at  the  immense  packing  estab- 


150  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

lishmcnts  near  large  cities,  and  only  so  many  are  killed 
on  the  farm  as  are  needed  for  home  consumption. 

In  this,  we  find  the  probable  reason,  why  no  more  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  finding  out  and  practising  inrth- 
ods  in  killing  and  curing  of  pork,  somewhat  impr"\<<l 
over  those  of  former  generations. 

We  are  not  aware  of  anything  having  been  writtm, 
nor  have  we  seen  practised  anything,  from  which  we  could 
infer  that  the  farmers  of  the  present  time  slaughter  and 
dress  their  swine  in  a  better  way  than  did  their  forefath- 
ers. The  old  method  of  knocking  down,  catting  into 
the  neck  to  sever  the  jugular  vein,  and  pierce  the  heart, 
scalding  in  water  not  quite  boiling,  into  which  a  quart  of 
ashes  has  been  thrown  "  to  make  the  hair  slip,"  scraping 
with  knives,  hoes,  and  iron  candlesticks,  and  then  lift- 
ing by  main  strength,  the  naked,  slippery  hog  to  the 
pole  or  fixture,  from  which  he  is  to  hang  for  gutting  and 
cooling,  is  yet  in  vogue  on  nearly  every  farm. 

Those  who  raise  the  best  of  hogs,  too  often  have  few 
conveniences  for  butchering,  and  those  hurriedly  and 
awkwardly  made,  generally  by  the  hired  man,  while  the 
water  is  heating  in  the  morning.  A  small  expenditure  of 
labor  and  money  would  secure  such  facilities  as  would 
render  butchering-day  much  less  disagreeable. 

After  the  hog  is  secured  for  sticking,  either  by  being 
caught,  knocked  or  shot  down,  it  should  be  turned  square 
on  its  back,  and  no  twist  allowed  in  its  neck,  so  that  the 
sticker  will  be  sure  to  sever  its  main  arteries,  without 
allowing  the  knife  to  penetrate,  or  injure,  either  shoulder. 
We  do  not  deem  it  best,  or  even  desirable,  to  pierce  the 
heart,  but  prefer  to  let  the  animal  die  from  loss  of  blood, 
which  it  should  do  in  the  space  of  five  minutes,  or  even 
less,  if  the  knife  has  been  properly  used.  When  properly 
stuck,  the  blood  should  leap  from  the  gash,  in  a  stream 
as  large  as  the  gash  itself,  while,  or  before,  the  sticker 
removes  the  knife. 


SLAUGHTERING,  CURING,  AND   PRESERVING.  151 

A  barrel  or  cask  is,  for  many  reasons,  a  poor  vessel  in 
which  to  scald  a  hog,  and  any  farmer  who  annually 
hatchers  a  half  dozen  good-sized  porkers,  should  provide 
himself  with  something  less  circumscribed  and  inconveni- 
ent, to  say  nothing  of  the  difficulty  of  keeping  a  suffi- 
ciency of  water  at  anything  like  the  proper  temperature 
in  it. 

For  farm  use,  the  best  scalding  vessel  we  have  seen,  is 
a  lu-aw  box,  6  or  7  feet  long,  30  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  20  or  24  inches  deep,  with  sides  somewhat  flaring. 

This  should  have  a  sheet-iron  bottom,  well  supported 
on  the  under  side,  and  be  set  over  a  stone  or  brick  founda- 
tion, in  which  there  is  a  convenient  chamber  for  making 
sufficient  fire  to  readily  heat  the  water  in  the  vessel 
above,  and  by  which  it  can  be  kept  thoroughly  heated  for 
the  length  of  time  required  by  any  number  of  hogs.  At 
its  rear  end  should  be  a  pipe,  or  chimney,  for  smoke,  and 
the  sides  may  be  banked  up  with  earth.  .The  description 
and  engraving  of  the  food  cooker  in  Chap.  XV.  will  afford 
some  useful  suggestions  for  the  construction  of  a  vat  for 
scalding.  The  top  of  the  vat  should  be  about  2 '/,  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ground.  On  a  level  with  the  top, 
on  one  side,  there  should  be  built  a  strong  platform, 
about  6  feet  wide,  and  8  feet  long,  from  which  to  scald 
the  hogs,  and  upon  which  they  are  to  be  cleaned,  after 
scalding.  At  the  rear  end  of  this,  the  ground  should  be 
graded  up  even  with  the  platform,  or  a  sloping  platform 
built,  to  facilitate  getting  the  hogs  on  to  the  main  plat- 
form, after  they  have  been  killed.  For  convenience  in 
lowering  the  hogs  into,  and  lifting  out  of  the  scalding 
water,  two  or  more  ropes,  8  or  10  feet  long,  should  be 
secured  to  the  side  of  the  platform  next  the  water,  and 
resting  on  these,  the  carcass  can  be  lowered  or  raised 
with  comparative  ease,  by  two  or  three  men.  On  the 
bottom  of  the  vat,  there  should  be  some  wooden  strips  or 
a  slatted  frame,  to  prevent  the  hog  from  lying  directly 


152  SWIM:  in  >n  AN  DRY. 

on  the  iron  bottom,  as  with  much  fire  in  the  furnace,  the 
skin  would  soon  cook  or  burn. 

The  anim-.il  is  immersed  for  a  few  seconds,  and  th.n. 
by  means  of  the  ropr.  raised  out  of  the  water,  to  allow  the 
air  t<>  strike  it  thoroughly,  and  then  immersed  again. 

When  the  hair  readily  leaves  the  skin,  especially  on  t  he 
head,  legs  and  feet,  the  hog  should  be  removed  from  the 
watjr  as  soon  as  possible,  and  speedily  stripped  of  every 
hair.  When  this  is  done,  the  hind  legs  should  be  freely 
cut  into,  below  the  gambrel  joint,  to  reach  both  main 
cords,  under  which  the  gambrel  should  be  entered.  The 
gambrel  should  be  of  strong  wood — hickory  or  oak  is  best 
— and  from  24  to  30  inches  in  length,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  hogs,  and  should  be  slightly  notched  on  the  up- 
per side  of  each  end,  to  prevent  the  legs  from  slipping  olT. 

Posts  or  forks  should  be  so  set,  that  a  strong  pole  rest- 
ing on  them,  will  be  in  part  over  the  platform,  about  six 
feet  from  the  ground,  and  on  this  the  hogs  can  be  hum:. 
and  slipped  along  toward  either  end,  out  of  the  way,  after 
they  have  been  thorougly  scraped  and  rinsed  down. 

Opening  the  hogs  should  be  done  by  some  one  familiar 
with  such  work,  and  no  directions  hero  would  be  of  practi- 
cal value. 

After  removing  the  intestines,  the  mouth  should  be 
propped  open  with  something,  and  all  blood  carefully 
rinsed  out  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  and  neck.  The 
next  point,  and  a  most  important  one,  is,  to  let  the  car- 
cass, well  spread  on  the  gambrel,  hang  until  thoroughly 
coolea  in  all  its  parts  ;  unless  this  is  observed,  the  pork 
cannot  be  cured  or  preserved  in  good  condition,  however 
much  pains  may  be  taken  with  it. 

CURING   AND   PRESERVING. 

To  cure  meat  of  any  kind,  it  is  desirable  to  have  it  from 
animals  that,  before  slaughter,  were  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree matured,  or  had  attained  their  natural  growth. 
After  dressing,  as  before  intimated,  the  first  requisite  is 


SLAUGHTERING,  CURING,  AND   PRESERVING.  153 

to  thoroughly  cool  the  carcass,  and  for  this  it  should  hang 
in  a  low  temperature,  for  thirty-six  or  more  hours,  but  on 
no  account  should  it  freeze,  especially  not  after  being 
dressed ;  freezing  its  outer  surface,  surrounds  the  interior 
of  the  flesh  with  a  wall,  through  which  the  animal  heat, 
still  remaining  in  and  around  the  bones,  cannot  escape, 
and  the  result  will  be  souring  and  speedy  decay  at  the 
centre  of  hams,  shoulders,  etc.,  that  outwardly  appear  in 
good  condition. 

Having  so  large  a  per  cent  of  fat,  side-pork  does  not 
readily  become  over  salt,  and  there  is  really  no  danger  of 
injury  to  any  but  the  leaner  portions  of  the  carcass  by 
too  much  salt ;  yet  where  salt  is  dear,  economy  would 
dictate  that  only  so  much  be  used  as  is  actually  neces- 
sary as  a  preservative.  • 

Salting  with  and  without  brine,  are  both  popular 
methods,  and  both  are  so  satisfactory,  that  we  deem  one 
as  good  as  the  other. 

If  brine  or  " pickle  "is  used,  no  danger  is  apprehended 
from  insects  during  the  pickling  process  ;  the  brine  ex- 
tracts the  blood  and  other  juices  from  the  meat,  which 
rise  to  the  surface,  (more  rapidly  in  warm  weather),  and 
there  decomposing,  are  likely  to  contaminate  the  entire 
contents  of  the  cask,  unless  given  occasional  attention. 

The  preventive  of  trouble  in  this  direction  is,  to  occa- 
sionally subject  the  brine  to  boiling  ;  the  impurities  will 
rise  to  the  top,  and  are  to  be  skimmed  off  ;  in  this  way, 
the  brine  may  be  kept  pure,  and  its  strength  undimin- 
ished,  for  any  desired  length  of  time. 

In  "  dry  salting,"  or  salting  in  barrels,  boxes,  or  piles, 
without  the  addition  of  water  to  form  a  brine,  it  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  no  chance  be  afforded  for  flies  to 
deposit  eggs,  or  maggots,  or  to  even  come  in  contact  with 
the  meat.  If  flies  have  had  access  to  the  pork,  it  cannot 
then  be  saved,  unless  at  once  put  into  brine,  or  kept  in  a 


154  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

temperature  so  low  the  eggs  cannot  hatch,  the  latter  bo- 
ing  not  often  practicable. 

The  season  of  the  year,  in  which  meats  may  be  cured 
on  the  farm  with  the  best  success,  is  from  December  i:»th 
to  February  15th,  the  interval  between  these  dates  afford- 
ing two  indispensable  conditions,  viz.:  cool  weather  and 
immunity  from  insects  and  pests. 

Pork  is  cut  to  suit  the  demands  of  the  different  mar- 
kets in  which  it  is  sold,  and  the  various  uses  for  which  it 
is  intended,  but  the  aim  should,  in  all  cases,  be  to  hau- 
it  in  such  form  as  to  pack  snugly,  and  we  repeat,  never 
pack  down  until  thoroughly  cooled  throughout. 

Where  it  is  intended  to  use  brine,  the  meat  may  be 
packed  in  layers;  salt,  at  the  rate  of 'eight  pounds  to 
each  hundred  pounds  of  pork,  is  to  be  sprinkled  evenly 
over  and  around  each  layer,  until  the  cask  is  full;  then 
clean  rain  or  other  pure  water,  is.poured  in,  until  all 
the  interstices  are  filled  and  the  meat  thoroughly  co\ 
None  of  the  meat  should,  at  any  time,  be  allowed  to  re- 
main above  the  brine,  and  in  open  casks,  or  tubs,  some 
attention  will  be  necessary  to  keep  weights  so  arranged 
as  to  hold  it  under. 

Many  persons  prefer  to  prepare  the  brine  by  adding  to  the 
salt  some  sugar,  or  molasses,  and  saltpetre,  dissolving  these 
in  the  water,  and  pouring  the  pickle  over  the  packed  meat. 
A  very  good  recipe  is  as  follows  :  For  100  pounds  of  pork 
take  4  ounces  saltpetre,  3  pints  common  molasses,  or  9 
pounds  brown  sugar,  and  7  pounds  clean  salt ;  when  thor- 
oughly dissolved,  pour  over  the  meat,  which  it  will  cover> 
if  properly  packed.  Many  boil  the  pickle  before  using  it, 
as  the  impurities  from  the  salt,  sugar,  etc.,  will  rise,  and 
can  be  skimmed  off  ;  when  this  is  done,  the  brine  should 
be  thoroughly  cool,  before  adding  it  to  the  meat. 

Hams  and  shoulders,  to  keep  well  afterwards,  should 
be  in  pickle  from  one  to  two  months  ;  the  length  of  time 
depending  on  their  thickness.  For  curing  them  with* 


SLAUGHTERING,  CURING,  AND    PRESERVING.  155 

out  brine,  a  favorite  recipe  is  :  12  pounds  fine  salt,  2 
quarts  molasses,  '/a  pound  powdered  saltpetre ;  when  these 
are  well  mixed,  they  will  have  about  the  consistency  and 
appearance  of  damp  brown  sugar,  and  will  be  sufficient 
for  150  pounds  of  meat.  Hub  hams  and  shoulders  thor- 
oughly with  the  mixture,  and  lay  singly  on  a  platform  in 
a  cool,  dry  place.  At  the  end  of  the  first,  and  of  the  sec- 
ond week,  rub  them  again  as  at  first,  and  then  expose  to 
continuous  smoke  for  ten  days. 

A  simpler  way,  in  which  any  portion,  or  all,  of  the  hog's 
ear*  ass  can  be  cured,  is  to  put  a  layer  of,  say,  half  an  inch 
of  salt  on  a  platform,  floor,  or  the  bottom  of  a  large  box, 
or  cask,  then  a  layer  of  meat,  on  this  a  liberal  sprinkling 
of  salt,  and  so  on,  until  all  is  packed  and  the  top  well 
covered  with  salt. 

Such  portions  as  are  not  to  be  smoked,  should  be  stored  in 
brine  before  insects  appear,  and  the  smoked  meat  may,  like 
the  hams  of  commerce,  be  covered  securely  with  canvas, 
and  whitewashed,  or  packed  well  in  bran,  dry  ashes,  oats, 
or  shelled  corn.  For  considerable  quantities,  packing  in 
tight  barrels  is  a  good  plan,  and  for  family  use,  a  swing- 
ing shelf,  with  sides  and  ends  covered  with  wire  cloth,  in- 
side of  which  the  pieces  are  hung,  is  convenient,  and  is 
also  secure  against  rats  and^mice,  as  well  as  insects. 

The  room  where  any  kind  of  cured  meat  is  to  be  kept, 
should  be  dry  and  cool,  and  the  darker  the  better. 

The  preservative  principle  of  smoke  is  known  as  creosote. 
Smoke  made  by  burning  corn-cobs  is  highly  esteemed, 
but  those  engaged  in  curing  meats  on  a  large  scale,  con- 
sider that  the  purest,  sweetest  smoke  is  obtained  from  dry 
hickory  sap-wood,  stripped  of  its  bark.  If  the  smoking 
process  is  too  much  hurried,  the  creosote  will  not  have 
time  to  penetrate  the  entire  substance  of  the  meat,  but 
ten  days  steady  smoking  is,  in  all  cases,  sufficient,  unless 
the  pieces  are  unusually  large  and  very  thick. 


156  .  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

LARD. 

Lard  is  almost  a  pure  oil,  of  quite  a  permament  com- 
position, for  which  water  has  no  affinity,  and  moisture 
and  air  have  but  little  effect  on  it.  In  the  rendering  of 
lard  from  the  tissues  in  which  it  is  contained,  fragments 
of  membrane  and  particles  of  animal  fibre  are  intermix.  <1, 
which  would,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  yield  to  decay ;  but 
being  surrounded  by  oil  and  wholly  enclosed,  they  are 
kept  inactive.  Yet,  after  some  time,  if  abundant,  tlu-v 
may  become  changed  and  give  an  odor  and  taste  of  decay. 

Care  should  be  exercised  as  to  the  purity  of  lard  t  hat- 
is  designed  to  be  kept,  as  well  as  to  the  exclusion  of  tin- 
air  from  the  vessel.  Stone-ware  jars  (not  earthen)  arc  the 
most  desirable  vessels  for  storing  lard,  which  should  al- 
ways be  kept  in  a  cool,  dry  atmosphere. 


CHAPTER   XVIII. 
HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-MAKING. 

A  great  deal  of  theoretical  matter  has  been  published 
on  the  subject  of  feeding  animals.  Chemical  analyses 
of  various  feeding  stuffs,  valuable  as  they  are  in  show- 
ing their  nutritive  constituents,  are  not  always  con- 
clusive evidence  of  their  practical  value.  There  are 
facts  connected  with  digestion  and  assimilation  which 
can  not  be  arrived  at  by  chemical  analysis.  We 
therefore  give  a  chapter  which  embodies  practical  ex- 
perience based  upon  scientific  knowledge.  No  one 
familiar  with  the  agriculture  of  Ohio  need  be  told  of 
the  high  position  which  is  occupied  by  the  Sullivants; 
whether  as  men  of  science  or  as  practical  agriculturists, 


HOG-FEEDING    AND    PORK-MAKING.  157 

whose  farming  operations  have  been  conducted  on  a  scale 
unequalled,  at  least  on  this  side  of  the  continent. 

The  essay  which  forms  this  chapter,  is  by  Joseph  Sul- 
livant,  Esq.,  whose  wide  experience  and  thoroughness  as 
an  investigator,  joined  to  his  high  scholarly  attainments, 
are  well  known  to  the  people  of  Ohio,  where  he  has  long 
been  prominent  as  an  officer  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture. 

The  essay  appeared  in  the  "  Ohio  Agricultural  Report" 
for  18G9.  Its  value  as  a  contribution  to  agricultural  liter- 
ature, and  the  desire  to  make  it  more  widely  known,  are 
sufficient  reasons  for  giving  it  a  place  in  the  present  work. 

Having  had  occasion  to  inquire  concerning  the  conditions  neces- 
sary to  make  hog-feeding  profitable,  I  was  somewhat  surprised 
and  puzzled  at  all  the  discordant  answers,  and  therefore  undertook 
to  investigate  this  subject  for  myself,  and  propose  here  to  give  the 
results  arrived  at,  and  the  basis  of  my  conclusions.  In  tills  way 
iny  labor  may  at  least  become  valuable  by  eliciting  the  truth  from 
others,  who  may  be  induced  to  enlarge,  confirm,  or  disprove  my 
work. 

As  to  my  sources  of  information,  suffice  it  to  say,  my  materials 
have  been  collected  and  elaborated  from  various  chemical  works, 
agricultural  books,  reports  and  transactions  of  societies,  news- 
pipers  and  periodicals  devoted  to  rural  affairs,  and  conversations 
with  intelligent  and  practical  farmers,  and  from  my  own  experi- 
ence. 

When  we  come  to  know  the  diverse  and  varying  circumstances 
under  which  pork  has  been  made,  we  no  longer  wonder  at  the  dis- 
crepant opinions  and  results,  and  clearly  perceive  they  are  owing  to 
the  different  methods  pursued,  in  which,  oftentimes,  tradition  and 
caprice  have  governed  rather  than  an  intelligent  understanding  of 
the  end  in  view,  and  the  best  and  most  economical  means  of 
obtaining  it. 

The  farmer  who  pens  his  hogs  without  shelter  from  the  weather 
and  without  bedding,  or  a  dry  feeding  place,  and  leaves  them  to 
wallow  and  waddle  belly  deep  in  the  mire,  where  the  ears  of  corn 
sink  out  of  sight,  and  where  the  hog  has  literally  to  root  for  his 
living,  cannot  expect  him  to  fatten  quickly  and  economically. 

Nor  can  the  results  be  fairly  compared  to  those  obtained  where 
attention  has  been  paid  to  warmth  and  protection  from  the  weather, 


158  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

a  dry  feeding  place  and  clean  food.  And  these  differing  circum- 
stances probably  make  all  the  difference  of  a  fair  remuneration 
for  food  and  labor  in  the  one  case,  or  little  or  no  profit  in  the  other. 

If  we  could  always  command  circumstances,  we  might  then 
reasonably  hope  for  a  greater  uniformity  and  reliability  of  results. 

The  discoveries  in  animal  physiology,  as  well  as  in  agricultural 
chemistry,  throw  much  light  on  our  subject,  and  point  us  to  the 
proper  path  to  be  pursued,  and  the  direction  in  which  we  must 
look  for  a  rational  explanation  of  the  most  successful  practices 
already  pursued  by  intelligent  breeders  and  feeders. 

The  thorough  understanding  of  the  data  and  principles  so 
acquired,  and  the  proper  application  of  them,  will  eventually  lead 
us  to  valuable  results. 

We  may  undoubtedly  anticipate  much  benefit  from  a  more 
thorough  diffusion  and  understanding  of  the  important  principles 
involved  in  animal  physiology  and  agricultural  chemistry,  bearing 
as  they  do  directly  on  some  of  the  most  vital  questions  in  agricul- 
ture. There  is  yet,  however,  a  wide  gulf  separating  theory  from 
practice,  although  all  successful  practice  is  but  the  right  application 
?f  scientific  principles,  whether  we  recognize  and  apply  them,  or 
practice  in  ignorance  of  them. 

There  is  one  subject  of  paramount  importance  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  question  of  the  best  and  most  economical 
methods  of  rearing  and  fattening  animals  on  the  farm,  as  to  de- 
mand the  most  serious  consideration;  I  allude  to  the  manure  pro- 
duced and  its  value  in  arresting  the  decreasing  fertility  of  our 
soils,  which  is  made  evident  by  the  gradual,  but  certain,  diminu- 
tion of  the  product  of  our  crops,  and  of  which  the  lessened  yield 
of  wheat,  in  regions  formerly  productive,  is  a  striking  example. 

The  deterioration  of  our  cultivated  lands  may  be  easily  account- 
ed for  in  the  fact  that  for  sixty  years  we  have  constantly  taken 
from  the  ground,  and,  during  this  long  period,  returned  little  or 
nothing  to  it.  If  this  condition  of  things  is  to  be  changed,  we 
must  alter  our  methods  of  farming,  and  by  systematic  rotation  of 
crops  and  by  manuring,  or  by  both,  endeavor  to  restore,  or,  at 
least,  keep  in  present  condition  our  severely  cropped  lands,  for 
only  by  returning  some  portions  of  the  organic  and  inorganic 
matter  removed  by  the  crops,  can  we  keep  our  soil  in  a  fertile 
state,  for,  no  matter  how  rich  originally  or  at  present,  it  will, 
sooner  or  later,  become  exhausted  unless  fed  in  proportion  to  the 
yield  required  from  it.  Owing,  however,  to  the  great  original 
fertility  of  our  soil,  it  still  yields  a  fair  remuneration  for  the  labor 
bestowed  upon  it,  and  we  have  not  yet  reached  the  point  where 


HOG-FEEDING   AND    POKK-MAKING.  159 

manure  becomes  indispensable  to  the  growing  crop,  as  in  many 
places  in  Europe,  where  the  question  is,  not  how  much  meat,  but 
how  much  manure  is  produced  on  the  farm?  And  where  the 
profit  of  feeding  consists  simply  in  the  value  of  the  manure  pro- 
duced by  the  animal. 

Manure  is  most  valuable  hi  proportion  to  the  nitrogen  it  con- 
tains; and  as  we  propose  to  feed  our  hogs  on  a  grain  containing 
twelve  (12)  per  cent  of  nitrogenized  material,  the  manure  should 
be  valuable  to  us  when  preserved  and  applied  to  our  lands.  Still, 
fortunately  for  us,  owing  to  the  cheap  production  of  Indian  corn, 
so  far  as  the  profits  of  feeding  are  concerned,  we  may  leave  the 
manure  so  produced  entirely  out  of  consideration,  and  I  proceed 
to  the  main  object  of  the  investigation. 

WILL  IT   PAY  TO    FATTEN   HOGS   ON   CORN  ? 

In  answering  this  question,  the  first  and  most  important  con- 
sideration is  that  of  food  ;  and  the  mlue  of  equal  we'ghts  of  the 
different  kinds  used  for  fattening  purposes  will  depend  upon  the 
proportion  of  nutritive  material  in  each,  and  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

Without  going  into  detail  as  to  the  ultimate  elements,  we  shall 
content  ourselves  with  adopting  the  classification  of  the  proximate 
principles  of  food  into 

NITROGENOUS    AND    NON-NITROGENOUS. 

The  first  representing  the  plastic  material  or  flesh  formers,  and 
the  last  the  heat  and  fat  givers ;  classing  these  last  together  be- 
cause the  surplus  carbon  not  required  for  maintaining  animal  heat 
and  respiration  is  stored  up  in  the  tissues  in  the  form  of  fat. 

It  has  been  proven  by  direct  experiment,  that  both  the  nitrogen- 
ized and  non-nitrogenized  elements  must  exist  in  due  proportion 
in  the  food  to  maintain  any  animal  in  a  healthy  and  growing  con- 
dition, and  if  it  were  fed  exclusively  on  one  or  the  other  it  would 
pine  and  die. 

However,  it  is  highly  probable  that  if  the  nitrogenous  elements 
existed  in  many  articles  of  food  in  less  quantities  than  is  actually 
found  to  be  the  case,  they  would  still  be  sufficient  for  the  wants 
of  the.animal  organism ;  for  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the 
nitrogen  ingested  in  the  food  passes  away  in  the  excreta  without 
assimilation,  but  at  the  same  time  adds  additional  value  to  the 
manure. 

The  following  table  gives  the  proportion  of  this  necessary  cle- 
ment in  one  hundred  (100)  pounds  of  the  different  substances  that 


160 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


are  or  may  be  used  in  the  fattening  process,  and  also  the  non-nitro- 
genized  or  fat  giving  principles,  and  the  total  amount  of  carbon : 

TABLE  NO.    1. 

Table  of  the  Cliemical  Composition  of  some  Principal  Articles  of  Food. 
EXPLANATION.— The  column  of  "  Heat  and  Fat  Givers  "  signifies— I. 
Starch  ;  II.  Sugar ;  III.  Fat  or  Oil. 


Name. 

Water 

Flesh 
fwin- 
ers. 

Heat  and  fat 

givers. 

Equiv- 
alent, of 
starch. 

Miner- 
al ittat- 

1    (ers. 

Total 
carbon. 

Barley                    

15.1 
12.0 

8.0 
26.0 
10.7 

1.45 
1.3 

4.27 
3.8 
41.25 
12.0 
22.14 

3.0 
4.0 

4.0 
18.0 
22.6 
1.4 
3.41 
1.4 
0.8 

1.2 
4.0 
3.83 
8  3 

I.  74.0    ) 
III.     2.0    f 
I.  57.0    { 

in.   2.0  f 

I.  52.3    ) 
II.     8.3    J. 
III.     0.4    ) 
I.     7.01  i 
III.     0.03  f 
I.     6.3    ) 
II.     5.0    \ 
III.     0.15  j 
I.     8.45  | 
III.     0.69  f 
I.     8.141 
III.     0.69  f 
I.  16.45  i 
III.  li.05  \ 
I.  68.5    ) 
III.     7.0    j 
I.  39.1    > 
II.  11.93S 
II.  73.0 
II.     4.6    ) 
III.     3.5    f 
II.     4.6    ) 
III.     2.0    f 
I.  52.5    i 
III.     6.5    f 
I.  58.5    [ 
III.     2.0    f 
I.  10.0    i 
II.     2.5    f 

i.  14.  n  i 

III.     0.86  C 
I.  22.5    1 
III.     0.1    j 
I.  62.7 
II.     2.5    \ 
111.     2.9    ) 
I.     3.2    1 
II.     3.0    \ 
IT.     4.6    [ 
III.     1.5    I 
1.  13.G3J 

in.    o.c.:[ 

I    4*  5    \ 

78.8 
61.8 

58.48 

7.2 
11.3 

10.1 
10.27 
54.4 

85.3 
67.1 

69.0 
12.5 

8.8 
68.6 
63.3 
12.1 

16.01 

22.7 
71.2 

6.3 

r*  /> 
rf.O 

15.58 
46.9 

0.9 
3.0 
1.4 

0.12 

0.80 

1.33 

2.08 
8.05 
1.5 

7.25 

6.3 

0.7 

0.77 
2.54 
2.5 
1.0 
1.95 
1.0 
1.36 

1.5 

0.75 
3.6^ 
1,5 

38.  6  J 
40.84 
31.74 

3.89 
6.11 

6.785 
6.607 
46.0 
41.72 
41.7 

32.3 
6.687 

5.532 
46.8 
39.35 
6.345 
8.93 
11.468 
39.9 

3.39 
5.147 

8.98 
£6.93 

Buckwheat  Seed      . 

Cabbage             

89.42 

86.5 

81.01 
79.71 
9.28 
12.0 
10.05 

Dry. 

87.2 

83.6 
12.2 
15.0 
85.1 
67.14 
75.0 
15.0 

91.1 

80.1 

en.  r,: 

48.8 

Clover  (Red)       

Clover  (White) 

Cotton-seed  Cake  \ 

(Decorticated.)          f 
Indian  Coro 

Linseed  Cake  

Mangold-  wurzel. 

Milk  (New.)  

Milk  [ 

(Skimmed.)            j 
Oats  

Peas  (Dry)  .  . 

Parsnips             >. 

Poi  Pratensis  ) 

Timothy.)              j 
Potatoes 

Rye  (grain)  

Turnips  ,  

Butternnlk 

Lucern  
Bread..   .               . 

in,   i.o  j 

HOG-FEEDING    AND    PORK-MAKING.  161 

The  farmer  has  here  a  wide  range  from  which  to  choose,  and 
knowing  the  cost  of  production  or  market  price  per  one  hundred 
(100)  pounds  of  each,  can  determine  which  to  select  as  the  most 
advantageous  for  his  purpose. 

If  the  plastic  material,  or  flesh-formers,  be  assumed  as  the  basis 
of  value,  then  equal  weights  of  the  grain  and  seed  foods  will  stand 
in  the  following  order :  Cotton-ssed  cake  (decorticated,)  "beans, 
Jinseed  cake,  peas,  oats,  Indian  corn,  rye,  buckwheat,  barley;  but 
on  the  basis  of  fat  and  heat  givers,  they  stand,  first :  Barley,  Indian 
corn,  rye,  peas,  oats,  beans,  buckwheat,  linseed  cake,  cotton-seed 
cake.  Taking  the  whole  of  nutritive  matter,  they  range  in  the 
following  order :  Indian  corn,  barley,  beans,  peas,  rye,  oats,  buck- 
wheat, linseed  cake,  cotton-seed  cake,  potatoes.  Estimated  accord- 
ing to  the  total  amount  of  nutritive  material,  there  is  not  much 
difference  in  the  theoretical  value  of  several  of  these  substances, 
but  Indian  corn  heads  the  list,  and,  containing  in  itself  all  cssenti,  1 
elements  for  the  growth  and  fattening  of  animals,  we  shall  adopt 
it  as  our  standard  of  value  and  comparison. 

Measured,  then,  by  the  theoretic  value,  one  hundred  (100)  pounds 
of  corn  are  equal  to  the  weights,  as  exhibited  in  the  following 
table  : 

TABLE  NO.    2. 
In  feeding  value  100  pounds  of  corn  equals — 


Parley 101 

Beans 103 

Rye 117 

Oats 118 

Buckwheat 133 

Cotton  cake 117 

Linseed  cake.. .     ..110 


Peas 106 

Potatoes 360 

Man^old-wurzel 665 

Parsnips 618 

Carrots 731 

Buttermilk £08 

Fresh  milk 865 


Red  Clover 665 

White  Clover 665 

Timothy  grass 298 

Lucern 598 

Cabbage 1018 

Skimmtd  milk 721 

Turnips 1236 


Although  it  appears  from  the  first  table  that  cotton  cake,  beans, 
peas,  and  linseed  cake,  contain  more  of  flesh  givers  than  corn,  and 
might  very  advantageously  be  fed  to  young  and  growing  animals, 
yet,  upon  the  whole,  Indian  corn  stands  pre-eminent  as  the 
cheapest  material  accessible  to  our  farmers,  and  the  question  now 
arises — 

HOW    MUCH    PORK    IK    A    BUSHEL    OF    CORN  ? 

In  determining  this  we  shall  first  consider  the  composition  of 
corn  from  a  theoretic  and  chemical  view,  and  then,  taking  results 
obtained  from  the  vital  processes  occurring  in  the  human  subject, 
apply  them  by  analogy  to  the  hog,  which,  of  all  our  domestic 
animals,  most  nearlv  resembles  man  in  his  digestive  apparatus. 

Looking  only  at  the  chemical  composition  of  corn,  and  separat- 


162  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

ing  it  into  flesh  formers  and  heat  and  fat  givers,  at  twelve  (12) 
per  cent  of  the  first  and  forty-one  (41)  per  cent  of  the  latter, 
there  would  appear  to  be  nearly  tairty  (30)  in  the  bushel  of  corn,  to 
be  transformed  into  an  equal  quantity  of  pork,  through  the  organ- 
ism of  the  hog.  But  I  shall  presently  show  that,  whatever  the 
value  of  corn  by  the  chemical  standard,  it  is  not  all  transformed 
into  pork,  and  therefore  there  is  not  thirty  (30)  pounds  to  be  ob- 
tained from  a  bushel  of  corn. 

It  has  been  determined  by  competent  observers  and  experiment- 
ers who  have  carefully  investigated  the  subject,  that  a  certain 
amount  of  nitrogenized  and  non-nitrogenized  matter,  or  flesh 
formers  and  heat  and  fat  givers,  representing  the  carbonaceous 
material,  is  required  to  keep  an  adult  man  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  (150)  pounds  weight  in  good  condition ;  tliat  is,  neither  in- 
creasing nor  diminishing  in  weight,  under  moderate  labor,  vital, 
physical,  or  mental.  As  the  hog  performs  no  brain  work,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  almost  i  i  a  state  of  rest  while  fattening,  he  will 
certainly  require  no  more  of  the  above  elements  than  does  the 
man,  and  most  probably  less.  But  assuming  for  him  the  same 
amount,  it  will  be  amply  sufficient  to  keep  a  hog  of  the  weight  of 
150  pounds  in  as  good  condition  as  the  man.  But  if  the  hog  is  to 
fatten  likewise,  he  must  have  an  additional  amount  of  food,  over 
and  above  that  which  is  merely  sufficient  to  furnish  the  material 
consumed  in  respiration,  animal  heat,  and  the  restoration  of  all 
waste  produced  by  the  vital  processes. 

Before  demonstrating  what  this  amount  of  extra  food  must  be, 
I  premise  that  the  hog  is  to  be  sent  to  market  at  300  Ibs.  weight. 

As  he  increases  from  0  to  300,  it  is  evident  his  mean  weight  is 
150  Ibs. ;  and  if  we  can  determine  how  much  corn  is  required  at 
this  weight,  not  only  to  restore  the  daily  waste,  but  to  fatten  him 
one  pound  per  diem  in  addition,  we  will  have  solved  the  problem 
of  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  in  a  bushel  of  corn. 

Dr.  Edward  Smith,  an  eminent  writer  and  experimenter,  is  a 
high  authority  on  vital  statistics,  and  was  employed  by  the  English 
Government  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  foods  of  the  laboring 
classes. 

He  states  that  the  actual  quantity  of  carbon  contained  in  the 
food  of  English  work-people,  according  to  the  severity  of  the 
exertion,  is  from  30  to  38  grains  per  pound  of  body  weight.  He 
also  says  that  28  grains  of  carbon  to  each  pound  of  body  weight 
gives  the  measure  which,  when  united  with  the  proper  amount  of 
flesh  formers,  is  sufficient  to  keep  a  man  of  150  Jbs.  in  good  con- 
dition under  moderate  exertion. 


HOG-FEEDING   AND   PORK-MAKING.  1G3 

Now,  as  has  already  been  said,  the  hog,  increasing  from  0  to 
300  Ibs.,  his  mean  weight  is  150,  and  the  amount  of  carbon  neces- 
sary at  this  weight  will  give  the  mean  or  average  amount  required 
daily  for  his  whole  life  of  300  days. 

Then  150,  the  mean  weight  of  the  hog,  multiplied  by  28,  the 
number  of  grains  of  carbon  daily  required,  gives  4,200  grains,  or 
9  ounces  of  carbon,  to  supply  the  waste,  and  keep  him  in  condition ; 
and  22  ounces,  or  a  little  less  than  one  and  one-half  pounds  of 
corn,  will  furnish  the  necessary  elements. 

But  to  fatten  the  hog  a  pound  a  day,  he  will  require,  in  addition, 
16  ounces  flesh  and  fat  material,  which  will  be  furnished  by  two 
pounds  of  corn.  Thus,  2  Ibs,  or  32  ounces,  contain  12  per  cent  of 
flesh  formers,  and  gives  384/ioo  ounces  of  this  material,  and  the 
same  2  Ibs.  containing  41  per  cent  of  carbon,  furnish  1312/ioo 
ounces,  and  3.84x13.12=16.96  ounces,  or  material  for  a  little  more 
than  one  pound  of  pork ;  and  therefore  54  ounces,  or  3  Ibs.  and  6 
ounces  of  corn,  is  the  average  daily  ration  while  making  three 
hundred  pounds  of  pork  in  three  hundred  days. 

As  3  Ibs.  and  6  ounces  are  contained  in  56  Ibs. ,  or  one  bushel,  16 
69/ioo  times,  there  are  consequently  16.59  Ibs.  of  pork  in  one  bushel 
of  corn,  according  to  the  data  here  given. 

And  if  the  amount  assumed  to  restore  the  waste  in  the  hog  and 
keep  him  in  condition  be  correct,  then  there  cannot  be  made  more 
than  the  16.59  Ibs.,  because  the  elements  would  be  wanting.  The 
amount  assigned  for  waste  is  certainly  high  enough,  most  probably 
too  high  ;  and  if  we  take  the  amount  of  carbon  and  flesh  formers 
simply  to  keep  a  man  of  150  Ibs.  in  condition  when  in  a  state  of 
rest,  and  modify  our  statement,  the  result  would  be  2£  ounces  of 
flesh  formers  and  7  ounces  of  carbon  derived  from  14  ounces  of 
corn ;  but  two  pounds,  or  32  ounces,  being  still  required  for  the 
fattening  process,  we  have,  altogether,  46  ounces  contained  in  896 
ounces,  the  weight  of  a  bushel  of  corn  19^  times ;  equal  to  19^- 
Ibs.  of  pork. 

I  have  found  from  a  careful  examination  of  experiments  in 
feeding,  but  not  herein  set  forth,  that  usually  not  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  food  is  returned  in  tlic  form  of  flssh,  even  in  well 
conducted  experiments ;  and  3  into  56  Ibs. ,  or  one  bushel,  gives 
182/3,  and  the  mean  of  16.59,  19.50,  and  18.63  gives  such  a  close 
agreement  of  theory  with  the  best  practice,  that  I  conclude  it  is 
very  nearly  correct,  and  that  chemistry  and  physiology  have 
answered  our  question  satisfactorily,  or  at  least  fixed  alimitbeyond 
which  it  is  not  likely  we  will  be  able  to  pass,  unless  under  excep- 
tional circumstances,  and  the  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn  will  not 


164  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

exceed  twenty  pounds,  and  will  approach  or  recede  from  this 
according  to  circumstances. 

Shelling,  grinding,  and  cooking,  the  corn  cannot  increase  the 
existing  amount  of  elements,  and  has  for  effect  only  to  render  the 
matter  more  soluble  and  digestible,  and  make  the  approach  to  the 
figures  given  more  probable,  than  if  the  corn  was  fed  in  the  whole 
and  raw  state. 

But  it  has  been  well  observed,  "  in  every  case  in  which  life  is 
concerned,  it  is  not  at  once  to  be  concluded  that,  so  much  material 
being  consumed,  there  will  be  uniformly  and  necessarily  so  much 
product."  There  are  so  many  modifying  circumstances  to  vary 
our  results,  that  it  is  not  probable  our  practice  will  ever  give  con- 
stant uniformity  or  perfect  coincidence  with  theory,  or  the 
chemical  constituents  of  the  food  we  employ  in  stock  feeding. 
And,  although  we  may  to  a  great  extent  master  the  circumstances 
under  our  own  control,  there  still  remain  unexplained  difficulties, 
arising  from  the  inherent  differences  belonging  to  special  breeds 
and  constitutions  of  the  animals  we  have  to  deal  with,  as  well  as 
the  anomalies  we  have  to  encounter  whenever  we  attempt  to  apply 
theory  and  chemical  principles  to  living  organisms  and -vital  func- 
tions, which  perhaps,  for  a  longtime  to  come,  will  continue  to  baffle 
our  best  endeavors  and  prevent  uniform  and  constant  results. 

However  this  may  be,  the  conclusions  drawn  from  the  scientific 
principles  I  believe  to  be  entirely  trustworthy,  and  are  satisfactory, 
to  myself  at  least,  as  determining,  not  only  the  possibilities,  but 
the  high  probabilities,  and  it  now  only  remains  to  see  how  far  our 
chemical  view  is  confirmed  or  substantiated  by  the  average  results 
in  actual  practice,  obtained  from  a  great  number  of  experiments 
and  records;  for  it  would  not  be  safe  to  draw  general  conclusions 
from  one  experiment  alone,  however  successful. 

We  proceed  to  determine,  as  well  as  we  can,  what  answer  prac- 
tice and  experiment  returns  to  our  question  : 

HOW  MUCH  PORK  CAN  BE  OBTAINED  FROM  A  BUSHEL  OF 

CORN  ? 

This  is  so  important  a  question,  bearing  so  immediately  and 
directly  upon  the  value  of  corn,  that  we  might  suppose  it  had  been 
settled  long  ago,  beyond  all  controversy.  If  such  be  the  fact  we 
find  no  record  of  it,  and  it  is  here  our  real  difficulty  commences  ; 
for,  as  we  said  in  the  beginning  of  this  paper,  the  answers  are  dis- 
cordant and  apparently  contradictory. 

I  find  plenty  of  opinions  and  guesses,  with  loose  assertions,  but 


HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-MAKING.  165 

comparatively  a  very  few  results  based  upon  actual,  reliable,  and 
recorded  experiments;  and,  after  a  somewhat  minute  research,  I 
propose  now  to  give  the  condensed  results  of  my  examinations, 
without  going  into  much  detail,  remarking,  however,  that,  although 
finding  many  records  of  experiments,  I  have  been  obliged  to  re- 
ject most  of  them,  on  account  of  irregularity  and  want  of  pre- 
cision. In  most  of  them  the  corn  has  been  fed  in  a  mixed  state 
with  roots,  milk,  potatoes,  and  other  substances,  as  well  as,  some- 
times, whole  and  raw  for  part  of  the  time,  and  then  in  the  form  of 
meal,  cooked,  and  raw ;  and  I  retain  those  only  which  give  precise 
results  on  the  heads  we  have  selected  for  examination. 

RAW   COEN   FED    IN   THE   EAR. 

Taking  tli3  experiment  of  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  for  what  it  is 
worth,  I  remark  that  I  am  certain  there  must  have  been  some 
error  or  local  circumstance  vitiating  the  result ;  for  5|  Ibs.  of  pork 
from  a  bushel  of  corn  is  much  the  least  I  have  found  recorded  in 
any  experiment,  and  much  less  than  was  obtained  by  Renick  and 
Buckingham,  whose  hogs  roamed  at  will  through  a  cornfield, 
wasting  corn,  and  from  the  very  fact  of  exercise  and  labor  in  get- 
ting their  own  food,  making  far  less  return  than  if  the  same  corp 
ha.l  been  fed  them  in  a  pen. 

Buckingham  also  tried  the  experiment  of  feeding  corn  in  the 
ear  to  hogs  in  a  pen,  and  got  a  return  of  8£  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a 
bushel  of  corn. 

Thomas  I.  Edge,  of  Chester  county,  Pa.,  fed  5  pigs,  of  the  same 
litter,  five  bushels  of  shelled  corn,  and  received  47£  Ibs.  of  pork, 
or  93/5  Ibs.  from  the  bushel. 

B.  P.  Kirk  fed  49'/i6  bushels,  and  had  a  return  of  over  12  Ibs. 
of  pork  per  bushel. 

An  experiment  at  North  Chatham,  Columbia  county,  N.  Y., 
gave  a  fraction  less  than  12  Ibs  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn. 

Mr.  Ellsworth,  of  Indiana,  had  12  Ibs.  of  pork  per  bushel  from 
corn  fed  in  the  ear. 

Marcus  E.  Merwin,  of  Litchfield,  Conn.,  fed  95  days,  and  made 
9|  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn. 

A.  S.  Proctor,  of  Illinois,  fed  61  days,  and  gained  10  Ibs.  of  pork 
per  bushel. 

Wiseman  E.  Nichols,  Morrow  county,  Ohio,  fed  100  bushels  of 
corn  in  63  days,  and  made  from  it  1,130  Ibs.  of  pork,  or  ll^/ioo 
Ibs.  per  bushel.  This  corn,  however,  was  simply  soaked  two  days 
in  water. 


166  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Mr.  Van  Loon,  of  111.,  fed  20  days,  and  made  a  fraction  over 
9  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn. 

Mr.  Behmer,  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  made  10|  Ibs.  from  one  bushel 
of  corn. 

Even  including  Clay's  experiment,  which,  I  think,  ought  to  be 
excluded  from  any  comparison  of  results,  the  eleven  records  here 
presented  give  an  average  of  over  ten  pounds  of  pork  from  one 
bushel  of  corn,  fed  in  the  ear  and  upon  the  ground. 

An  experiment,  partly  of  corn  in  the  ear,  which  was  made  at 
Duncan's  Falls,  Ohio,  in  1859,  and  communicated  to  the  Ohio 
Farmer,  is  so  instructive  in  several  particulars,  that  I  insert  it  here 
in  a  condensed  form. 

"  Last  fall,  (1859),  I  turned  my  hogs  into  the  cornfield  on  the 
10th  of  September,  after  having  weighed  them  all;  they  were 
taken  out  October  23d,  weighed  and  placed  in  a  small  lot.  During 
this  time,  from  September  10th  to  October  23d,  they  ate  down  40 
acres  of  corn,  and,  estimating  it  at  40  bushels  per  acre,  the  in- 
creased weight  of  the  hogs,  at  4  cents  per  pound,  just  paid  40  cents 
per  bushel  for  the  corn  they  had  eaten.  Two  days  after,  or  25th 
of  October,  I  selected  of  the  lot  one  hundred  hogs,  averaging  200 
Ibs.  each ;  they  were  placed  in  large  covered  pens,  with  plank 
floors  and  troughs,  and  fed  as  follows :  The  corn  was  ground  up, 
cob  and  all,  in  one  of  the  'Little  Giant'  mills,  steamed  and  fed 
five  times  a  day  all  they  could  eat,  and  in  exactly  one  week  they 
were  weighed  again,  the  corn  they  had  eaten  being  weighed  also, 
and  calling  70  Ibs.  a  bushel  of  corn,  and  pork  as  before  4  cents 
gross,  it  was  equal  to  80  cents  a  bushel  for  corn.  The  weather 
was  quite  warm  for  the  season  of  the  year.  The  first  week  in 
November  I  tried  the  same  experiment  on  the  same  lot  of  hogs, 
and  the  corn  only  brought  62  cents  per  bushel,  the  weather  being 
colder."  "  Third  week,  same  month,  same  lot  of  hogs,  and  corn 
fed  in  the  same  way,  brought  40  cents  per  bushel,  the  weather 
getting  still  colder."  "Fourth  week  in  November,  weather  still 
colder,  fed  as  above,  and  the  corn  brought  25  cents  a  bushel.  This 
lot  of  hogs  was  now  sold  and  another  lot  put  up,  which  had  been 
fed  in  the  lot  on  corn  on  the  cob.  This  lot  was  weighed  and  fed 
as  the  last  for  five  weeks  in  December,  and  the  corn  averaged  25 
cents;  the  weather  being  about  the  same  as  in  November."  "  This 
lot  was  weighed  again  in  the  middle  of  January,  and  the  corn  fed 
during  that  week  averaged  5  cents  per  bushel,  the  thermometer 
being  down  to  zero.  Again  the  lot  was  weighed,  and  they  just 
hJd  their  own;  the  temperature  being  below  zero  from  one  to  ten 


HOG-FEEDING  AND   PORK-MAKING.  167* 

degrees."  And  from  the  above  the  writer  concludes  it  will  not,  as 
a  general  thing,  pay  to  feed  after  November. 

An  analysis  of  this  experiment  shows  that  the  hogs  made  10  Ibs. 
of  pork  to  the  bushel  of  corn  while  hogging  it  down,  September 
10th  to  October  25th. 

The  first  week  they  were  fed  on  ground  corn  and  cob-meal, 
steamed,  they  made  the  extraordinary  amount  of  20  Ibs.  of  pork 
to  one  bushel  of  corn.  Second  week,  weather  colder,  15^  Ibs. ; 
third  week,  still  colder,  10  Ibs.;  fourth  week,  weather  colder  yet, 
6|  Ibs.  of  pork  to  one  bushel  of  corn,  and  the  first  lot  was  sold. 

The  second  lot  of  hogs  was  fed  five  weeks  in  December,  on  the 
same  food  and  in  the  same  way  as  the  first  lot,  the  weather  being 
same  as  in  the  last  week  of  November,  and  the  corn  averaged  but 
6|  Ibs.  of  pork  to  the  bushel.  In  January,  the  weather  being  very 
cold,  the  corn  returned  but  1£  Ibs.  of  pork  per  bushel ;  and  when 
the  temperature  sank  to  zero  and  below,  the  corn  returned  nothing 
at  all  !  Certainly  a  most  instructive  example,  showing  how  the 
product  ran  down  from  20  Ibs.  to  the  bushel  to  nothing,  from  the 
influence  of  cold  alone,  and  demonstrating  beyond  aH  doubt  the 
advantage  and  the  necessity  of  warmth  and  shelter. 

Although  irregular,  I  will  here  also  insert  a  remarkable  experi- 
ment by  S.  M.  Wherry,  Shippensburg,  Pa.,  and  communicated  to 
the  Practical  Farmer,  December,  1869.  Here  the  object  was 
growth,  not  fat ;  and  this  practical  experiment  is  valuable  in  several 
particulars.  Ten  pigs  of  one  litter,  Berkshire  breed,  were  fed  in 
pairs,  having  been  equalized  as  near  as  possible.  They  were 
twelve  weeks  and  four  days  old  at  the  commencement  of  the  ex- 
periment, which  continued  eight  weeks,  or  fifty -six  days. 

The  first  pair  gained  from  five  bushels  of  old  shelled  corn  at  the 
rate  of  84/ioo  Ibs.  per  day,  making  94  Ibs.  of  pork,  or  184/5  Ibs. 
from  one  bushel  of  corn. 

The  second  pair  ate  280  pounds,  (or  5  bushels),  of  old  corn, 
ground  into  meal  and  cooked,  gaining  91  Ibs.,  or  18y5  Ibs.  of  pork 
from  one  bushel,  but  less  than  from  the  whole  and  raw  corn  ! 

The  third  pair  consumed  140  Ibs.  of  meal  and  280  Ibs.  of  pota- 
toes, and  gained  93  Ibs. 

The  fourth  pair,  fed  on  560  Ibs.  of  cooked  potatoes,  made  a  gain 
of  89  Ibs.;  showing  that  cooked  potatoes,  fed  alone,  have  a  little 
less  than  half  the  value  of  corn. 

The  fifth  pair,  fed  green  corn  in  the  ear,  350  Ibs.,  or  5  bushels, 
reckoning  70  Ibs.  to  the  bushel,  and  they  gained  the  very  extra- 
ordinary amount  of  100  Ibs.,  or  20  Ibs.  of  pork  to  the  bushel. 

During  all  this  experiment,  each  pig  consumed  but  24-  Ibs  of 


1GB  SAVING    HUSBANDRY, 

corn  per  diem,  or  the  supposed  equivalent  in  potatoes  or  green  corn. 
Tais  experiment  alone,  without  being  supplemented  and  con* 
firmed  by  others,  is  insufficient  from  which  do  draw  a  general 
application  ;  but,  as  the  writer  observes,  is  very  suggestive,  indicat- 
ing that  pigs  not  pushed,  but  steadily  and  moderately  fed,  make 
flesh  instead  of  fat,  at  the  rate  of  B4/ioo  Ibs.  daily,  and  that,  being 
so  fed,  they  can  do  their  own  grinding  and  cooking  with  advantage. 
It  is  evident  that  the  greater  the  number  and  the  longer  the 
Iim3  experiments  are  continued,  the  higher  is  the  probability  that 
ihey  approach  to  a  reliable  and  constant  average,  and  if  we  admit 
that  the  thirteen  experiments  here  set  forth,  were  made  on  adequate 
numbers  and  continued  a  sufficient  length  of  time,  they  should 
have  great  weight  in  establishing  a  general  rule,  which,  in  this 
case,  wouU  be  that  one  bushel  of  corn,  (or  56  Ibs.  of  corn),  fed  on 
tli3  ear,  returns,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  ten  pounds  of  pork. 
But,  intending  to  be  cautious  and  moder.ite,  we  shall  assume,  for 
comparison  and  calculation,  that  one  bushel  raw  and  whole  corn 
makes  9  Ibs.  of  pork. 

RAW  MEAL 

is  supposed  to  increase  in  value  over  raw  corn  to  the  extent  of  33 
per  cent ;  t'.iis  is  the  opinion  and  statement  of  the  Shakers  of  Leb- 
anon, New  Yark,  after  a  trial  of  thirty  years.  If  this  increase 
be  true,  then,  according  to  our  basis  of  9  Ibs.  of  pork  to  one  bushel 
of  corn,  the  corn,  when  ground,  should  make  12  Ibs.  of  pork. 
This  agrees  with  an  experiment  of  Mr.  Thomas  Edge,  making 
60  Ibs.  of  pork  from  five  bushels  of  meal. 

And  this  rate  of  return  coincides  with  two  elaborate  and  extend- 
ed experiments — one  in  England  and  one  in  this  country. 

I  give  here  the  result  of  these  experiments  by  Prof.  Miles,  of 
the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  and  by  Mr.  Lawes,  of  Rotham- 
stead,  England  ;  and  a  full  account  of  these  very  interesting  and 
instructive  experiments  by  Prof.  Miles  may  be  found  in  the  "  Ohio 
Agricultural  Report  for  1868,"  and  that  of  Mr.  Lawes  in  the  "  Jour- 
nal Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,"  vol.  xiv. 

The  experiment  of  Prof.  Miles  commenced  May  2d,  and  ended 
December  15th,  embracing  a  period  of  203  days,  or  29  weeks,  and 
was  made  0:1  six  grade  Essex  pigs,  two  weeks  old,  and  from  the 
same  litter,  and  were  divided  into  two  pens  of  three  pigs  each. 
During  the  first  few  we  ^ks  they  were  fel  on  a  mixed  diet  of  milk, 
meal,  and  a  por:ion  of  roots,  and  therefore  we  select  the  last 
period  of  20  weeks,  during  which  they  were  fed  exclusively  on 
corn  meal.  The  three  best  pigs,  one  from  pen  A  and  two  from 


HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-MAKING.  169 

pen  B,  were  killed  December  15th,  and  averaged  145  Ibs.  each ;  and, 
deducting  the  original  weight  at  the  commencement  of  the  experi- 
ment, each  gained  in  the  total  period  of  203  days  141  Ibs,  or  69Yioo 
Ibs.  per  diem — during  a  part  of  this  time,  (8  weeks),  being  fed  on 
a  mixed  diet.  One  of  the  pigs  from  pen  B  having  died,  the  other 
two  were  fed  for  20  weeks  on  corn  meal,  and  in  140  days  gained 
205|  Ibs.,  or  9859/ioo  Ibs.,  each  pig,  over  their  original  weight,  and 
at  the  rate  of  73Vioo  per  diem  for  this  period.  In  the  20  weeks 
935£  Ibs.  of  meal  were  consumed,  equal  to  167/io  bushels  of  corn, 
and  giving  a  return  of  123/io  Ibs.  of  pork  for  each  bushel,  and  re- 
quiring 4|  Ibs.  of  meal  to  make  one  of  pork. 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  Lawes,  of  England,  commenced  Febru- 
ary 2d,  1850,  with  36  selected  pigs  in  twelve  pens,  and  were  fed 
on  several  prescribed  dietaries.  The  pigs  were  9  to  10  months 
old,  and  at  the  time  of  selection  differed  among  themselves  but  a 
pound  or  two,  and  when  the  experiment  began  averaged  143£  Ibs., 
but  a  fraction  less  than  those  of  Prof.  Miles  when  his  were  killed, 
and  the  two  might  be  considered  in  the  light  of  a  continuous  ex- 
periment— Lawes  beginning  were  Miles  ended. 

We  select  for  investigation  and  comparison  pen  No.  5,  contain- 
ing three  pigs,  averaging  143^  Ibs.,  because  they  were  fed  exclus- 
ively on  corn  meal. 

The  experiment  lasted  8  weeks,  or  56  days,  during  which  time 
each  pig  consumed  362  Ibs.,  or  646/56  bushels  of  meal,  and  646/ioo 
Ibs.  daily,  and  gaining  7968/i00  Ibs.  of  weight,  or  !42/ioo  Ibs.  per 
diem,  and  at  the  rate  of  12  Ibs.  per  bushel;  a  very  remarkable 
agreement  betwixt  Edge,  Miles,  and  Lawes. 

An  analysis  of  the  experiments,  both  of  Miles  and  Lawes,  shows 
very  clearly  a  rzpid  decrease  in  the  rate  of  consumption  of  food  to 
a  given  weight  of  animal  as  it  fattens  ;  and,  although  less  food  is 
eaten,  it  takes  more  of  it  to  produce  one  pound  of  increase,  so 
that,  as  the  animal  approaches  his  maturity  of  fatness,  or,  as  it  is 
termed  in  Englind,  "  ripeness,"  he  may  reach  a  point  where  the 
return  in  pork  will  not  pay  for  the  corn  consumed.  This  point 
should  be  watched  for  and  the  pig  at  once  sent  to  market. 

At  the  conclusion  of  Miles'  experiment,  the  pigs  increased  less 
than  two  per  cent  in  a  week. 

Prof.  Miles  remarks  of  his  experiments : 

"  In  the  manufacture  of  pork  the  best  return  of  the  food  con- 
sumed will  undoubtedly  be  obtained  by  liberal  feeding  during  the 
early  stages  of  growth  ;  and  we  cannot  reasonably  avoid  the  con- 
clusion that  the  same  rule  is  applicable  to  all  animals  reared  for 
the  purpose  of  the  butcher. 


170 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


"  As  animals  are  employed  to  convert  the  vegetable  products  of 
the  I'arm  into  animal  products  of  greater  value,  the  greatest  profit 
in  fattening  may  reasonably  be  expected  from  liberal  feeding  dur- 
ing the  period  of  growth,  in  which  the  organs  of  nutrition  are 
capable  of  converting  the  largest  amount  of  material  into  animal 
tissues  in  a  given  time." 

And  Mr.  Lawes  established  by  his  experiment  "  that  the  larger 
the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  compounds  in  the  food,  the  greater 
the  tendency  to  increase  in  frame  and  flesh;  but  that  the  maturing 
or  ripening  of  -the  animal— in  fact  its  fattening— depended  very 
much  more  on  the  amount,  in  the  food,  of  certain  digestible  wow- 
nitrogenous  constituents." 

And  this  accords  perfectly,  I  believe,  with  all  experience. 
STEAMED    OE    BOILED    CORN. 

I  find  a  number  of  experiments  in  which  steamed  or  boiled  corn 
entered  as  part  of  the  food,  for  longer  or  shorter  times,  and  mixed 
with  other  things,  and  only  three  experiments  conducted  wholly  on 
boiled  corn ;  one  by  Clay,  gaining  14  Ibs.  7  oz.  of  pork  from  a 
bushel ;  one  by  Van  Loon,  of  Illinois,  who  obtained  18  Ibs. ;  and 
the  other  from  Montgomery  county,  Indiana,  giving  a  fraction 
less  than  12  Ibs.  of  pork  to  the  bushel  of  corn ;  and  all  three  give 
an  average  of  a  little  less  than  15  Ibs. 

The  Indiana  experiment  has  most  of  the  elements  of  time  and 
numbers  to  make  it  reliable,  and  I  give  some  analysis  of  it. 

Eight  pigs  from  one  litter  were  put  in  a  pen  when  one  week  old 
and  fed  nine  months,  consuming  220|  bushels  of  corn,  and  gain- 
ing 2,644  Ibs.  of  pork,  averaging  a  gain  of  330£  Ibs.  each  pig,  or 
I1/ a  Ibs.  each  per  day  for  the  whole  period;  and  the  following 
tabular  statement  shows  the  amount  of  corn  fed  during  each 
month,  the  gain  in  weight,  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  made 
to  one  bushel,  and  the  amount  of  corn  required  to  make  one 
pound  of  pork : 


No.  of  Month. 

Amount 
consumed. 

Total  gain. 

Pounds  of 
pork  per 
bushel. 

Pounds 
corn  to  one 
poundpork 

1st  month  . 

Bushels. 
15 

Pounds. 
168 

11  20 

5. 

2d 

24 

224 

933 

6. 

3d               

26k 

272 

10.30 

5.43 

4th             

27 

316 

11.76 

4.78 

5th             

29i 

352 

11.96 

4.68 

6th             

27 

360 

13.30 

4.21 

7th             

26i 

350 

13.20 

4.20 

8th 

26 

327 

12.60 

4.40 

9th             

21 

275 

13.00 

4.30 

Average  .  . 

11.85 

4.77 

HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-MAKING.  171 

Observe  how  regular  is  the  increase  in  weight  up  to  the  eighth 
month  of  their  age,  when  they  averaged  241i  Ibs— a  regular  de- 
crease in  the  amount  of  food  from  the  sixth  month  of  feeding, 
and  a  diminished  quantity  of  corn  to  make  one  pound  of  pork, 
instead  of  an  increase,  as  in  Miles'  and  Lawes'  experiments,  which 
goes  to  corroborate  what  we  have  already  said,  that  we  meet  with 
some  unaccountable  anomalies  which,  as  yet,  we  are  unable  to 
reduce  to  any  uniform  rule.  Perhaps  these  pigs  had  not  yet 
reached  their  full  capacity  of  fatness. 

I  add  here  two  extracts,  one  from  "Evening  Discussions"  at  the 
recent  New  York  State  Fair,  1867;  subject:  "  Cooking  Food  for 
Domestic  Animals." 

Hon.  G.  Geddes,  of,  Syracuse,  New  York,  said  :  "  He  had  thor- 
oughly proved,  years  ago,  that  cooking,  independent  of  grinding, 
at  least  doubled  the  value  of  food." 

"  George  A.  Moore,  of  Erie  county,  New  York,  said  he  had  fully 
satisfied  himself  that  the  value  of  food  was  tr'pled  by  cooking:' 

I  quote  from  "  Transactions  of  the  American  Institute,  1864." 
Prof.  Mapes  says :  "  The  experiment  often  tried  has  proved  that 
18  or  19  Ibs.  of  cooked  corn  is  equal  to  50  Ibs.  of  raw  corn  for 
hog  feed,  and  that  Mr.  Mason,  of  New  Jersey,  found  that  pork  fed 
with  raw  grain  cost  12£  cents  per  pound,  and  that  from  cooked 
corn  4£  cents." 

COOKED   MEAL. 

I  find  here,  as  in  other  cases,  much  of  assertion,  but  backed  by 
more  of  experiment ;  some  claiming,  on  apparently  good  grounds, 
that  grinding  and  cooking  the  meal  thoroughly,  doubles  the  value 
of  the  raw  corn. 

Rejecting  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  many  mixed  and  irregular  ex- 
periments,^ find  that  Clay  obtained  17£  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a 
bushel  of  corn  so  prepared ;  Marsh,  of  Glen's  Falls,  New  York, 
16 J-  Ibs. ;  A.  G.  Perry,  18  Ibs.;  Thomas  I.  Edge,  Chester  county, 
Pa.,  16yB  Ibs. ;  Nathan  G.  Morgan,  New  York,  20  Ibs.  ;  Bucking- 
ham of  Illinois,  20  Ibs.;  Jonathan  Talcott,  Rome,  New  York, 
17.9Y,oo  Ibs.;  Robert  Thatcher,  Darby,  Pa.,  made  two  experiments- 
one  on  five  very  ordinary  pigs,  getting  16%o  Ibs. ;  the  other  on  five 
superior  Chester  pigs,  and  gained  1744/ioo  Ibs.  from  a  bushel  of 
cooked  meal,  and  remarks  :  "  The  surprising  gain  for  food  con- 
sumed was  the  result  of  very  careful  feeding,  clean  and  warm  bed- 
din  W,  and  a  tight  house." 

The  average  of  all  these  experiments  is  1784/ioo  Ibs.  per  bushel. 

David  Anthony,  of  Union  Springs,  New  York,  convinced  him- 


172  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

self  by  experiment,  that  when  corn  fed  in  the  ear  was  worth  62 
cents,  ground  into  meal  it  was  worth  87  cents,  and  ground  into 
meal  and  cooked,  one  hundred  and  eighteen  (118)  cents,  the  last 
being  91  per  cent  better  than  raw  corn. 

Fro.n  an  examination  of  the  records  at  my  command,  I  think 
taat,  taking  the  return  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  corn  at  nine 
pjunds,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  corn  ground  into  meal  and  fed, 
increasas  in  value  about  33  percent  over  corn  fed  in  the  ear.  That 
thoroughly  steaming  or  cooking  the  whole  corn,  raises  its  value  to 
but  little  less  than  that  of  cooked  meal,  which  I  estimate  at  66 
per  cent  over  raw  corn  fed  in  the  ear. 

I  arrive  at  this  conclusion,  not  only  from  the  experiments  I  have 
herein  set  forth,  but  from  an  examination  of  quite  a  number  not 
here  given,  on  account  of  their  mixed  and  irregular  methods.  It 
is  true  that  grinding,  steaming,  or  cooking  the  corn  can  in  no  wise 
add  a  single  atom  to  the  elements  already  existing,  and  raises  its 
value  only  by  rendering  the  whole  nutritive  matter  available  by 
taking  it  more  soluble  and  of  easier  digestion,  so  that  the  maxi- 
mum of  nutrition  is  more  readily  and  certainly  obtained. 

I  conclude  that  nine  pounds  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  raw  corn 
fed  in  the  ear,  twelve  pounds  from  raw  meal,  thirteen  and  a  half 
pounds  from  boiled  corn,  and  sixteen  and  a  half  pounds  from 
cooked  meal,  is  no  more  than  a  moderate  average  the  feeder  may 
expect  to  realize  from  a  bushel  of  corn  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances of  weather,  with  dry  and  clean  feeding  pens.  All  this  is 
within  the  amounts  we  have  shown  to  be  probable  and  attainable 
upon  our  chemical  basis. 

Higher  percentages  have  been  frequently  obtained  in  practice 
than  any  we  shall  now  assume  as  our  basis  in  making  practical 
application  of  our  researches.  And  if  it  be  true  that  what  has 
once  been  done  can  be  done  again,  there  is  great  encouragement 
for  the  feeder  to  study  and  master  the  circumstances  that  will  give 
the  higher  results.  And  in  this  connection,  it  is  important  to  con- 
sider that  animals  live  constantly  in  a  medium  colder  than  them- 
selves for  the  greater  part  of  th^  year,  and  that  the  lower  temper- 
ature continually  abstracts  and  wastes  animal  heat  which,  in  the 
fattening  process,  must  be  maintained  in  proportion  to  the  temper- 
ature in  which  they  li^e,  and  tint  this  heat  is  obtained  from  the 
food  which,  under  other  circumstances,  would  be  transformed  into 
fat  and  stored  up  in  the  tissues. 

And  we  can  readily  perceive  that  warmth  and  shelter  from  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather  is  not  only  important,  but  almost  in- 


HOG-FEEDING   AND   PORK-MAKING.  173 

dispensable,  and  without  them  we  cannot  expect  the  highest  return 
for  the  food  consumed  ;  and  of  the  truth  of  this  the  Duncan's 
Falls  experiment  is  a  most  striking  and  instr  ctive  example. 

Having  established  the  fact  from  chemical  elements,  that  16  to 
19  Ibs.  of  pork  are  possible,  and  that  18  and  20  Ibs.  are  not  unfrc- 
quent  in  actual  practice,  under  the  circumstances  indicated,  we 
shall  not  be  deemed  extravagant  if  we  take  15  Ibs.  per  bushel  as 
the  basis  of  our  calculations  in  ascertaining  per  pound  the 

COST  OF    PORK, 

which,  it  is  obvious,  must  depend  upon  the  cost  of  corn  and  feed- 
ing ;  and  in  ascertaining  this,  we  intend  assuming  such  a  scale  of 
wages  as  would  in  any  part  of  the  country  secure  the  necessary 
labor,  supposing,  as  we  do,  that  it  is  all  to  be  hired,  and  that  the 
laborers  board  themselves  ;  ana  if  our  estimates  are  too  high,  or  if 
the  farmer,  with  his  own  laboi-  and  teams,  can  reduce  the  cost 
below  what  we  state,  it  will  be  easy  to  correct  our  tables  and  make 
them  conform  to  the  reduction,  \viiich  would  only  increase  the 
farmer's  margin  for  profit. 

We  assume  the  wages  of  a  hired  man  at  $2  per  day,  and  two 
horses  with  plow  or  wagon  to  be  worth  the  same,  or  four  dollars 
a  day  for  the  whole 

TABLE   NO.    3. 

Showing  the  cost  of  raising  an  acre  of  corn  ;  one  man  and  team 
plowing  two  acres  per  day  : 

One  acre  plowed  costs  ..........................................  $2.00 

Harrowing  8  acres  a  day,  1  acre  costs  ..........  ...................  50 

Planting  with  machine  8  acres,  1  acre  costs  .....................  50 

Seed  for  1  acre  ..................................................  £0 

Double  shovel  plowing,  or  cultivating  6  acres—  1  acre  costs  662/3 

cents,  or  cultivating  one  acre  three  times  .....................  &00 

Deeper  plowing,  hoeing,  extra  labor,  or  rent,  as  the  farmer 

chooses,  or  as  the  season  demands  ...........................  3.00 


Total 


whether  raising  35  or  60  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  labor  being  the 
same—  that  is,  the  farmer  is  obliged  to  bestow  upon  his  crop  dur- 
ing the  season  a  certain  amount  of  labor. 

Whatever  difference  of  opinion  about  the  distribution  of  the 
items  here,  the  sum  total  for  raising  the  crop  I  believe  to  be  amplo 
and  ought  to  command  a  return  of  60  bushels. 


174 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


TABLE  NO.   4. 
Cost  of  Gathering  and  Feeding. 

Husking  331  bushels  per  day  to  the  hand,  at  $2.00 6      cts.  per  bu 

Wages  of  man  and  team,  at  $4.00  per  day,  hauling  and 

cribbing  150  bushels 2.6  cts.  per  bu. 

One  man  with  steam  power  will  shell,  grind,  steam,  and 
feed  75  bushels  per  day,  wages  $2.00  ;  fifteen  bushels 
coal  at  15  cents  per  bushel,  $2.25 5.66  cts.  per  bu. 

14.26 
Or  say 1433/ioo  cts.  per  bu. 

which  we  will  take  for  our  future  tables. 

TABLE   NOi    5. 

Shows  cost  of  corn  per  bushel  at  $8.30  per  acre,  and  raising  35 
to  60  bushels  per  acre : 

35  bushels 231  cents.    40  bushels 201  cents. 

45       "       17*      "         50       "       16i      "    f 

55       "       15       "         60       "       131      " 

By  adding  the  cost  of  grinding,  steaming,  and  feeding,  to  that  of 
raising  and  cribbing,  we  have  the  total  cost  of  the  corn  in 

TABLE   NO.    6. 

35  bushels  per  acre  cost 37.50  cents  per  bushel. 

40        "  "        34.83 

45        "  "        31.66 

50        "  u 30.00 

55        "  "        29.00 

60        «  «  .  28.00 


TABLE  NO.    7. 

Showing  the  gross  value  of  a  bushel  of  corn  when  fed  on  the 
cob,  or  in  the  form  of  raw  meal,  boiled  corn  and  cooked  meal, 
rating  the  return  of  pork  per  bushel  at  9,  12,  13£,  15  Ibs.,  and  sel- 
ling from  4  to  10  cents  per  pound : 


Pounds  of  pork  from  1 
bushel  of  corn. 


On  the  ear 9 

Raw  meal 12 

Boiled  corn 13i 

Cooked  meal 15 


Value  of  pork  from  4  to  10 
cents  per  pound. 


45 
60 

67i 
75 


8       9      10 


72    81 
96108 
941  108  12H 


120  135  \  150 


1  Gross  value 
120;  (of  a  bushel 
135  f  of  T?n  in 


HOG-FEEDING    AND    POKK-MAKING. 


TABLE  NO.   8. 

Showing  cost  per  pound  of  pork,  the  number  of  bushels  of  com 
per  acre,  cost  per  bussliel  of  raising  and  feeding,  and  return  in 
pork — being  given  according  to  our  calculations : 


Bushels  per  acre.  . 

as 

40 

45       50 

55 

60 

Cost  per  bushel.  .  . 

37.50 

31.83 

31.66 

30.00 

29.00 

28 

Cents. 

Pounds  of    f 
pork  return-  1 
ed  per       1 

9 
12 
13i 

4.16 
3.12 

2.78 

3.87 
2.90 

2.58 

3.51 
2.61 

2.34 

3.33 
2.50 

2.22 

3.22 
2.42 
2.15 

3.11 
2.33 
2.07 

JCost  of  pork  in 
cents,  and  Vioo 

bushel.       [ 

15 

2.50 

2.37 

2.07 

2.00 

1.93 

1.87 

TABLE  NO.    9. 

Showing  the  total  amount  of  pork  per  acre,  the  number  of 
bushels  of  corn  and  return  of  pork  per  bushel,  being  given  accord- 
ing to  our  calculations : 

Pound,  of  pork  froml    Bu8hel8  of  com  Per  acre 


one  bushel  of  corn. 

35 

40 

4> 

50 

55 

60 

On  the  ear  

9 

12 
13i 
15 

315 

420 
472 
525 

860 
480 
540 
600 

405 
540 
607 
675 

450 
600 
675 
750 

495 
660 
742 

825 

540 
720 
810 
900 

1    Total  pounds  of 
J      pork  per  acre. 

Raw  meal  

Boiled  corn  
Cooked  meal  

If  we  find  the  price  per  pound  of  pork  in  Table  No.  8  cor- 
responding to  any  particular  yield  of  corn  per  acre  and  pork  per 
bushel,  and  deduct  it  from  the  market  price  at  any  given  time,  and 
multiply  by  this  difference  the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  obtained 
from  the  bushel,  we  have  the  net  profit  on  a  bushel  of  corn.  Thus, 
at  45  bushels  per  acre  and  13|  Ibs.  per  bushel,  we  find  the  cost  of 
pork  per  pound  to  he  2.34  cents.  Supposing  pork  to  be  selling  at 
6  cents  per  pound,  the  difference  is  3.66  cents ;  multiplying  13£  Ibs. 
(the  yield  per  bushel),  by  which  we  get  49.4  cents  as  the  profit  per 
bushel  of  corn.  If,  as  before,  we  find  the  price  of  pork  in  Table 
No.  8,  and  deduct  from  market  price,  and  multiply  by  this  differ- 
ence the  number  of  pounds  of  pork  per  acre,  as  found  in  Table 
No.  9,  corresponding  to  any  given  yield  of  corn  per  acre,  and 
pork  per  bushel,  we  have  the  net  profit  per  acre  from  pork.  Thus, 
we  find  by  table  No.  9,  at  45  bushels  per  acre  and  13£  Ibs.  per  bushel, 
the  amount  of  pork  per  acre  to  be  607  Ibs.  Multiplying  this  number 
of  pounds  by  3.66  cents  the  difference  between  cost  and  selling 
price,  we  have  $22.21  as  the  profit  per  acre  of  corn. 

We  have  already  satisfactorily  shown  from  chemical  data  above 


176 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


that,  after  allowing  a  sufficiency  of  the  elements  to  restore  the 
daily  waste  and  keep  a  hog  in  good  condition,  there  is  enough  in 
the  corn  to  bring  him  from  0  to  300  Ibs.,  at  the  rate  of  15  Ibs.  of 
pork  per  bushel  of  corn.  And  practice  has  shown  that  there  is 
more  than  we  have  assumed  in  our  calculations,  and  adhering  to 
our  maximum  of  15  Ibs.  as  one  we  believe  to  be  easily  attainable, 
and  supposing  also  that  the  feeder  will  strive  for  the  higher  result, 
we  have  prepared  a  table  to  show  what  profit  he  may  expect  for 
his  corn  with  good  cultivation,  and  getting  a  return  of  15  Ibs.  of 
pork  from  one  bushel  of  corn. 

TABLE  NO.    10. 


Selling  price  of 
pork  per  pound  in 
cents. 

Whole  cost  of  corn  per  bushel  according  to  product 
per  acre,  at  — 

35    |     40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

Bushels. 

Cents. 
37.50 

34.83 

31.66 

30.00 

£9.00 

28.00 

( 

' 

Cost  per 
bushel. 

Net  pro- 
fit per 
bushel. 

4 

22.50 
37.50 
.f  2.50 
67.50 
82.50 
97.50 
110.50 

25.17 
40.17 
55.17 
70.17 
85.17 
100.17 
115.17 

28.34 
42.34 
58.34 
73.34 
88.34 
103.34 
118.34 

30.00 
45.00 
60.00 
75.00 

yo.oo 

105.00 
120.00 

3100 
4K.OO 
61.00 
76.00 
91.  CO 
106.00 
121.00 

T2.00 
47.00 
62.00 
77.00 
92.00 
107.00 
122.00 

5 

6  

7  

8 

9 

10... 

It  appears  from  our  first  and  second  tables,  given  in  a  former 
part  of  this  paper,  that,  from  the  chemical  elements,  there  is  but 
little  difference  in  the  fattening  value  of  several  of  the  foods  there 
given,  but,  in  so  far  as  they  contain  more  of  the  phosphates  and 
flesh  formers  than  corn,  they  could  be  very  advantageously  fed  to 
young  and  growing  animals;  but  the  cost  of  producing  equal 
weights  of  these  must,  after  all,  determine  their  economic  value 
in  the  fattening  process. 

And  now,  having  satisfactorily  to  ourselves,  at  least,  set  forth 
and  established  the  close  agreement  of  theoty  with  the  best  prac- 
tice, not  by  guesses  and  loose  opinions,  but  by  solid  facts  and  ex- 
periments, we  might  here  leave  the  subject  for  each  one  to  secure 
the  results  we  have  shown  to  be  attainable  by  the  methods  best 
suited  to  his  own  circumstances  and  according  to  his  own  notions. 
But,  in  consequence  of  important  questions  which  now  arise,  we 
must  pursue  the  subject  a  little  farther,  even  if  it  lead  us,  for  the 
moment,  from  all  well-established  facts  into  the  field  of  hypothesis 
and  conjecture,  for  we  have  not  here  any  recorded  experiments  to 
assist  us  in  determining  a  question  of  much  practical  importance — 


HOG-FEEDING    AND    POltK-MAKIXG.  177 

THE    EIGHT    AGE    AT    WHICH    TO    FATTEN    A    HOG  ? 

Whether  it  is  better  to  keep  him  as  a  store  or  stock  animal,  in 
moderate  order  and  growing  condition,  on  grass  and  clover  with 
a  little  corn  during  winter,  until  he  is  matured  in  growth,  at  12, 
18,  or  20  months  old,  and  then  in  three  or  four  months  feed  him 
up  to  400  or  500  pounds,  or  to  winter  him  only  and  fatten  him  in 
tlie  spring ;  or  is  it  best  to  push  the  pigs  from  birth  and  feed  them 
up  to  300  Ibs.  at  nine  or  ten  months  old? 

In  order,  if  possible,  to  get  some  light  on  this  point  of  our  in- 
vestigation, let  us  take  two  pigs  from  the  same  litter,  as  near  alike 
as  possible,  subject  them  to  the  same  treatment  and  the  same  food, 
terminating  one  experiment  at  nine  months  and  the  other  at 
eighteen.  Then  with  pigs  littered,  say  April  1st,  let  them  run 
with  their  mother  on  grass  and  clover  until  October  1st,  a  period 
of  six  mouths,  or  183  days.  It  will  be  reasonable  to  assume  they 
will  make  three-fourths  of  a  pound  of  daily  growth  and  increase 
for  that  period,  or  weigh  138  Ibs.  each. 

We  will  now  take  pig  A  and  put  him  up  to  fatten,  and,  as  three 
months  or  thirteen  weeks  are  amply  sufficient  to  ripen  a  hog,  we 
will  full  feed  him  that  length  of  time,  or  92  clays.  We  also  desire 
to  br'ng  him  up  to  300  Ibs.;  and,  as  he  already  weighs  138  Ibs., 
there  remain  162  to  be  added,  and,  if  our  estimate  of  15  Ibs.  of 
pork  from  one  bushel  of  corn  ground  into  meal  and  boile:!  bo  cor- 
rect, he  must  eat  10  4/5  bushels  of  corn  and  get  a  daily  increase  of 
one  and  three-fourths  (If)  pounds,  and  so,  having  arrived  at  300 
Ibs. ,  we  dispose  of  him. 

Pig  B,  also,  at  the  end  of  six  months,  or  the  firpt  of  October, 
weighs  138  Ibs.,  same  as  pig  A,  but,  instead  of  being  put  to  fatten, 
we  wish  to  continue  him  to  May  first,  or  212  days,  and,  gaining  at 
the  same  rate  as  before — that  is,  three-fourths  pounds  daily -as 
from  April  to  October.  During  this  period,  from  October  to  May, 
he  consumes  11^  bushels  of  corn,  gains  159,  and  then  weighs  297 
Ibs.  Again,  he  pastures  from  May  to  October,  gaining,  as  before, 
138  Ibs.,  and  now,  at  October  first,  when  lie  is  put  up  to  fatten, 
weighs  435  Ibs.,  and,  being  fed  for  the  same  period  as  was  A,  or  92 
days,  and  making  the  same  increase,  he  now  weighs  594  Ibs.,  and 
has  eaten  altogether  a  little  over  22  bushels  of  corn  and  twelve 
months  of  pasture.  Pin  A,  for  six  months  pasturage  and  10  4/5 
bushels  of  corn,  returns  300  Ibs.  of  pork,  while  pig  B,  for  twelve 
months  pasturage  and  22  bushels  of  corn,  returns  but  594  Ibs.  of 
pork — being  a  difference  of  six  (6)  pounds  of  pork  and  one-fifth 
of  a  bushel  of  corn  in  favor  of  feeding  two  hogs  like  A  rather 


178  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

than  one  as  B,  making  the  same  amount  of  pork  and  returning 
the  money  invested  in  one-half  the  time. 

From  the  fact  that  both  Lawes  and  Miles  found,  as  the  hog  ap- 
proached ripeness,  or  full  maturity  of  fatness,  the  quantity  of  corn 
to  make  a  pound  of  pork  increases,  and  the  time  also,  it  may  be 
that  our  suppositious  cases  are  very  near  the  truth  ;  I  think  they 
are,  and  that  it  will  take  less  food  to  make  600  Ibs.  of  pork  from 
two  animals  than  from  one.  And  the  rates  of  increase  and  total 
weights  given  of  the  animals  is  rather  strengthened  and  corroborated 
by  the  fact  that  from  an  examination  of  the  weights  given  of 
several  hundred  extra  heavy  hogs  (upwards  of  350,)  of  the  age  of 
20  and  22  months,  very  few  reached  600  Ibs.,  and  none  made  an 
increase  of  one  pound  a  clay  for  that  whole  period. 

There  are  many  experiments  proving  that  hogs  of  18  to  22 
months  frequently  increase  during  the  fattening  process  at  the  rate 
of  2|-  to  3  Ibs.  a  day,  and  even  more ;  and  that  young  hogs  are  very 
often  made  to  weigh  300  Ibs.  and  over  at  the  age  of  9  to  10  months. 

There  is  no  doubt  a  certain  proportion  betwixt  muscle  and  fat 
while  feeding,  which  will  be  found  to  give  the  most  advantageous 
results;  but  it  is  so  apparent  that,  to  obtain  great  weight  in  any 
animal,  we  ought  to  have  a  good  supply  of  bones  and  muscle  to 
begin  with,  and  a  sufficient  frame-work  on  which  to  build  and  lay 
the  fat,  that  I  think  it  would  be  advisable  to  devote  the  first  few 
months  of  the  pig's  life  to  growth  rather  than  for  fat-making,  and 
to  this  end  S.  M.  Wherry's  experiment,  on  page  183  furnishes  a 
good  example.  And  it  will  be  well  to  remember  that  Miles'  pigs, 
with  an  insufficient  frame-work  to  carry  more,  were  ripe  at  seven 
months  old,  with  a  weight  of  145  only  pounds,  having  been  pushed 
from  the  start. 

Having  shown  how  much  pork  is  to  be  expected  from  a  bushel 
of  corn,  prepared  and  fed  in  various  ways,  we  will  devote  a  brief 
space  to  considering  the  expense  of  preparation.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  in  estimating  the  lowest  cost  price  of  pork,  we  assumed 
15  Ibs.  as  our  maximum  return  from  a  bushel  of  corn. 

But  in  obtaining  this  result  we  have  shelled,  ground  and  cooked 
our  corn  meal  with  steam  power,  and  it  may  be  said,  with  truth, 
perhaps,  that  this  can  only  be  applied  economically  on  a  large 
scale — say  to  feeding  upwards  of  250  head — to  feed  less  would 
hardly  justify  the  necessary  outlay  for  machinery  and  apparatus, 
and  we  must  try  some  other  plan  more  suitable  for  smaller  opera- 
tions. 

From  an  examination  I  am  satisfied  it  will  cost  upon  an  average 
15  cents  to  have  corn  shelled  and  ground,  including  toll  and  trans- 


HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-MAKING.  179 

portation  to  and  from  the  mill.  That  is  to  say,  taking  our  yield 
of  nine  pounds  of  pork  from  raw  corn,  and  12  from  raw  meal,  we 
must  get  15  cents  from  the  three  additional  pounds,  or  five  cents 
per  pound  for  the  pork,  to  pay  the  cost  of  grinding. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  pork  must  sell  at  some  price  greater  than 
this  to  afford  any  profit  on  the  three  pounds  so  produced,  and  to 
gain  even  five  cents  per  bushel  above  the  product,  and  nine  pounds 
per  bushel,  we  must  get  6|-  cents  per  pound  for  the  pork.  But 
now,  having  our  corn  ground  into  meal,  let  us  proceed  to  cook  it, 
which  I  estimate  will  cost  seven  cents  per  bushel  on  a  moderate 
scale,  with  simple  apparatus ;  and  15  cents,  the  cost  of  grinding, 
added  to  seven  cents,  the  cost  of  cooking,  equals  22  cents. 

From  corn  so  prepared,  we  expect  a  return  of  15  Ibs.  of  pork 
per  bushel  of  corn,  and  a  gain  of  six  pounds  over  raw  corn,  pro- 
ducing but  nine  pounds.  These  six  pounds  have  cost  22  cents,  or 
3|  cents  per  pound,  and  it  is  evident  that,  for  every  cent  per  pound 
above  this  cost  that  the  pork  brings,  we  gain  six  (6)  cents  more 
than  when  getting  but  nine  pounds  per  bushel.  Then,  at  6|  cents 
for  pork,  our  profit  would  be  18  cents  for  these  six  additional 
pounds  per  bushel. 

Suppose  now,  instead  of  incurring  the  expense  of  grinding,  that 
we  steam  or  cook  the  whole  grains  of  corn,  at  the  same  cost  as 
the  meal — seven  cents  per  bushel — and  gain  thereby  4J-  Ibs.  over 
the  product  of  raw  corn  (to  wit :  nine  pounds,)  then,  at  6£  cents 
per  pound  for  pork,  our  profit  would  be  23  cents  per  bushel  for 
these  4J  additional  pounds,  and  in  like  proportion  for  any  higher 
selling  price  for  pork. 

In  all  calculations  of  expense  throughout  this  paper,  we  have 
intended  to  make  ample  and  liberal  estimates. 

It  is  plain,  from  a  comparison  of  the  above  statements,  that, 
although  getting  but  13|  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of  boiled  or 
cooked  corn,  it  is  yet  the  most  economical  method  of  preparing 
the  corn  on  a  moderate  scale,  and  affords  not  only  a  possibility,  but 
a  high  probability,  of  a  larger  return  than  we  have  given. 

And,  fortunately  the  apparatus  required  is  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive, for  any  vessel  with  a  capacity  to  turn  into  steam  26  gallons  of 
water  per  hour  is  sufficient,  if  we  assume  that  corn  has  the  same 
capacity  for  heat  as  water,  to  raise  10  bushels  of  corn  to  the  boil- 
ing point  in  one  hour  and  keep  it  there,  and  furnish  a  daily  ratioa 
for  60  hogs.  But  it  is  evident  the  corn  must  be  kept  some  time  at 
the  temperature  indicated  to  cook  it.  No  doubt  on  many  farms 
there  already  exist  the  pans  and  brick  arches  used  in  the  making 
of  sorghum  molasses ;  and  these  pans,  with  some  alterations  and 


180  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

inexpensive  additions,  would,  no  doubt,  answer  an  admirable  pur- 
pose. So,  also,  will  a  large  kettle  set  in  an  arch,  answer  to  cook 
corn  for  10  to  30  hogs.  The  corn,  whether  cooked  in  the  pans  or 
kettle,  should  be  shelled  and  placed  in  trays  with  stout  wire  bot- 
toms just  close  enough  to  hold  the  grains  of  corn;  and,  placing 
these  trays,  if  need  be,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  just  above  the 
water  in  the  pan  or  kettle,  let  all  be  covered  and  steam  away.  I 
think  that  for  about  75  or  80  dollars,  an  apparatus  on  this  principle 
can  b2  made,  sufficient  for  150  hogs.  In  any  apparatus  for  cooking 
or  steaming  the  food,  one  square  foot  of  pan  or  kettle  exposed  to 
the  fire,  is  the  minimum  space  capable  of  evaporating  one  gallon 
per  hour — \\  feet  is  better. 

It  is  propable  the  corn  could  be  ground  on  the  farm  with  horse- 
power, cheaper  than  we  have  estimated,  if  the  feeder  will  invest 
in  a  mill  and  necessary  power. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  any  real  value  in  feeding  the  cob  ground 
with  the  meal ;  some  attaching  great  value  to  the  method,  others 
rejecting  it  altogether. 

Chemical  analysis  of  the  corn-cob  gives  six  to  ten  per  cent  of 
matter  that  may  be  rendered,  by  long  maceration  and  boiling, 
capable  of  assimilation  by  the  animal. 

I  myself  believe  there  is  not  nutriment  enough  in  the  cob  to  pay 
for  getting  it  out ;  but  an  occasional  feed  of  cob  meal  would  be 
of  service,  for  in  the  fattening  process,  a  certain  amount  of  inert 
matter  seems  not  only  to  be  beneficial,  but  to  be  absolutely  re- 
quired by  the  hog,  and  it  is,  no  doubt,  this  instinctive  want  and 
necessity,  that  induces  the  hog  to  eat  coal,  rotten  wood,  and  even 
clay  and  dirt. 

Having  now  considered  the  various  methods  of  preparirg  and 
feeding  corn,  there  yet  remains  one  subject  to  be  discussed  which 
is  of  too  great  importance  to  be  ignored  or  overlooked  in  any 
scheme  of  pork-making,  I  allude  to  "x^ 

THE    VALUE    OF    GRASS    AND    CLOVER. 

We  have  already  mentioned  it ;  but,  in  the  absence  of  any  care- 
fully conducted  experiments  on  this  point,  it,  is  somewhat  difficult 
to  determine  the  pork-making  value  of  grass  and  clover,  as  com- 
pared with  corn.  I  find  great  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
number  of  hogs  an  acre  of  good  grass  or  clover  will  support  during 
the  seaso'i ;  the  number  varying  from  three  to  six — the  higher 
number  being  assigned  to  an  acre  of  good  clover. 

Of  course  the  numler  must  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  grass 
or  clover,  whether  it  be  thick  or  thin,  and  also  a  good,  moderate, 


E   UBa- 
HOG-FEEDING   AND    POBK-MAKING. 

or  poor  crop.  In  this  dilemma  let  us  see  if  theoretic  statements 
will  help  us  in  the  solution  of  this  question."^ 

We  will  assume,  to  begin  with,  that  one  acre,  with  a  good  set 
of  timothy  and  clover,  occupying  the  ground  in  equal  proportions, 
will  give  a  product  of  12,000  Ibs.  during  the  season.  We  think 
this  a  moderate  estimate,  for  the  reason  that  it  requires  less  than 
one  ounce  of  green  food  per  month  from  each  square  foot  during 
five  months  of  pasturage.  Suppose  the  average  of  the  hogs, 
when  turned  on  to  grass,  to  be  125  Ibs.,  and  that  it  be  the  fact,  as 
has  been  frequently  stated,  that  an  animal  requires  three  per  cent 
daily  of  his  live  weight  in  dry  food,  or  its  equivalent  in  green 
food,  to  keep  him  in  a  growing  and  fattening  condition,  then  7£ 
Ibs.  of  grass  and  clover  will  be  consumed  by  one  hog  daily  from 
May  to  October,  or  153  days,  or  1,146|  Ibs.  during  this  whole  period. 
Then  it  is  evident  the  acre  of  grass  and  clover  will  support  as 
many  hogs  as  1,146|  is  contained  in  12,000  Ibs.  (the  product  of  one 
acre,)  or  10£  hogs,  nearly  !  But  we  prefer  to  base  our  calculations 
on  the  data  given  in  a  previous  part  of  this  paper,  that  it  requires 
one  and  one-third  pounds  of  corn  to  maintain  a  hog  of  150  Ibs.  in 
condition  merely,  and  of  course  requires  a  corresponding  portion 
of  green  food  to  do  the  same  thing;  and  if,  according  to  our 
Table  No.  2,  it  takes  6.75  Ibs.  of  clover  to  equal  one  of  corn,  then 
1.33  Ibs.  of  corn,  (the  amount  to  keep  the  hog  in  condition),  re- 
quires nine  pounds  of  green  clover,  or  an  equivalent,  to  supply 
the  daily  waste  in  the  animal  organism,  and  of  course  an  additional 
amount  is  necessary  to  increase  the  hog  in  weight ;  and  if  we  take 
the  increase  at  one-half  pound  daily,  then  6.75  Ibs.  more  of  clover 
is  needed,  or  15.75  altogether;  but  as  timothy  (of  which  an  equal 
portion  of  our  green  food  consists),  is  in  value  to  clover  as  298  to 
675,  a  less  amount,  or  eleven  pounds,  will  suffice  than  if  feeding 
clover  alone.  But  as  some  .s  wasted  and  trampled  down,  we 
think  a  daily  allowance  of  fifteen  pounds  to  each  hog  is  none  too 
much. 

Fifteen  pounds  of  green  food,  which  we  have  determined  as  the 
ration  to  sustain  the  hog  and  fatten  him  one-half  pound  daily,  is 
contained  in  12,000  Ibs.,  (the  product  of  one  acre),  800  times,  and 
would  support  one  hog  for  800  days,  or  5l/5  hogs  one  hundred  and 
fifty-three  days,  or  five  months,  from  May  to  October,  the  period 
of  pasturage.  Omitting  the  fraction,  our  five  hogs  increasing  one- 
half  pound  daily  for  153  days,  we  have  a  total  return  in  pork  of 
382£  Ibs.  from  one  acre  of  timothy  and  clover,  and  its  value  can 
be  compared  with  the  amount  of  pork  produced  from  an  acre  of 
corn  in  Table  No.  9. 


182  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

I  estimate  the  cost  of  getting  a  good  set  of  clover  and  timothy 
at  four  dollars  ($4)  per  acre,  and  that  we  will  have  two  seasons  of 
pasturage  from  it ;  and  dividing  this  cost  into  two  years  it  will  be 
but  two  dollars  for  our  382£  Ibs.  of  pork,  or  a  fraction  over  half  a 
cent  per  pound ;  or,  assigning  to  our  grass  and  clover  pork  the 
lowest  selling  price  in  our  tables,  or  4  cents  per  pound,  it  gives  us 
382£  x  4=$15.30 — and,  deducting  the  cost  of  the  grass  and  clover, 
leaves  us  a  net  profit  of  $13.30  for  one  acre  of  our  pasture.  Of 
course  all  this  is  hypothetical,  and  each  one  must  determine  for 
himself  how  nearly  these  calculations  are  correct.  I  believe  they 
are  within  the  truth,  and  will  be  exceeded  hi  actual  practice. 

If  any  one  takes  the  trouble  to  compare  the  values  of  pork  and 
corn  on  our  data  of  9, 12, 13|  and  15  Ibs.  of  pork  from  a  bushel  of 
corn,  it  will  be  found  that,  at  nine  pounds,  one  pound  of  pork 
must  bring  six  and  two  ninths  (6V»)  times  as  much  as  one  pound 
of  corn  to  make  the  pork  equal  in  value  to  the  corn — at  12  Ibs.  per 
bushel  one  pound  of  pork  must  bring  4$  times  as  much  as  one 
pound  of  corn— at  13|  Ibs.  per  bushel  the  pound  of  pork  must 
bring  47,0  times  the  price  of  the  corn,  and  at  15  Ibs.  per  bushel 
the  pork  requires  to  be  3y3  times  the  value  of  one  pound  of  corn. 

Finally,  after  a  careful  and  somewhat  extensive  examination 
and  analysis  of  quite  a  number  of  experiments,  regular  and 
irregular,  of  all  the  various  methods  of  feeding  corn,  including  a 
wide  range  of  country  and  seasons,  I  find,  upon  the  whole,  that, 
amidst  the  apparently  discrepant  and  contradictory  statements, 
quite  uniform  and  accordant  results  have  been  obtained  under 
similar  circumstances.  And,  notwithstanding  the  subtle  influences 
of  life  and  the  vital  processes  may  continue  to  evade  us,  and  may 
never  be  brought  entirely  under  our  control,  and  made  subservient 
to  our  purposes,  yet,  aside  from  all  this,  we  have  the  power  of 
perfect  command  over  many  of  those  circumstances,  which  do  un- 
doubtedly exercise  a  most  important  influence  over  the  young  and 
growing  animal — such  as  foods  in  various  quantities,  forms,  and 
proportions,  regular  feeding,  cleanliness,  warmth,  and  shelter  from 
the  weather;  and  last, but  not  least,  a  judicious  selection  of  the 
breeds  and  aptitudes  best  suited  to  our  wants. 

And  I  conclude,  upon  a  review  of  the  whole  subject,  that  it  will 
pay  to  fatten  hogs  on  corn  alone,  when  properly  prepared,  and  it 
will  be  easier  and  cheaper  if  a  portion  of  the  pork  be  made  on 
grass  and  clover. 

Where  the  farmer  prepares  for  pork-making,  and  pursues  it  with 
system  and  regularity,  I  believe  it  will  pay  him  better  than  to  sell 


HOG-FEEDING    AND   PORK-RAISING.  183 

his  corn,  (no  matter  what  be  the  market  price),  even  at  his  own 
door.  And  especially  I  think  will  this  be  found  true  by  those  so 
situated  as  to  be  obliged  to  haul  their  corn  any  distance  to  market, 
which  increases  the  cost  of  the  corn  5  to  15  cents,  according  to  the 
distance  to  be  traveled. 

My  investigations  have  led  me  to  some  unexpected  conclusions, 
but,  having  no  theory  to  begin  with,  I  have  simply  followed  where 
truth  seemed  to  lead,  determined  to  collect  and  tabulate  facts  and 
be  guided  by  them  alone,  avoiding  all  mere  opinions  and  assertions. 

If  we  have  proved  anything,  it  is,  that  it  is  possible  and  com- 
paratively easy  to  get  50  per  cent  more  for  corn  than  we  now  do 
for  all  the  millions  of  bushels  fed  to  hogs  in  the  process  of  pork- 
making.  Sustaining  in  this  industry  alone  a  loss  of  millions  of 
dollars  annually,  the  question  of  how  much  pork  in  a  bushel  of 
corn  is  not  an  insignificant  one. 

It  strikes  me  that  the  different  State  Agricultural  Societies  could 
engage  in  no  more  beneficial  work  than  to  arrest  the  enormous 
losses  of  our  wasteful  feeding  processes,  by  the  dissemination  of 
correct  information,  and  by  a  series  of  well-conducted  experiments 
lend  their  powerful  aid  to  elucidate  so  important  a  subject. 


184  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

CHAPTER    XIX. 
THE  EFFECTS  OF  COLD  ON  FATTENING  SWINE. 

EXPERIMENTS  MADE  AT  THE  KANSAS  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 
FAUM,  BY  E.  M.  SHELTON,  PROFESSOR  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  West,  a  very  large  proportion  of  all  animals 
kept  for  their  flesh,  are  fattened  during  the  most  inclem- 
ent season  of  the  year,  and  they  receive  protection  that 
is  rarely  sufficient  to  break  the  force  of  the  wintry  blasts. 
In  some  cases,  the  corrals,  or  feed-lots,  are  located  in  a 
belt  of  timber,  a  ravine,  or  a  sink  in  the  prairie,  but  the 
shelter  is  rarely  sufficient  to  affect  the  temperature  of  the 
enclosure. ' 

This  western  plan  of  feeding  has  often  been  condemned 
on  sentimental  grounds,  but  the  facts  that  stock  has  gen- 
erally fed  well  under  this  plan,  and  the  business  of  feed- 
ing has  been  profitable  to  the  feeder,  have  prevented 
these  objections  from  having  very  great  influence.  With 
the  object  of  establishing  some  facts  bearing  on  this  point, 
and  having  a  relation  to  profit  and  loss,  the  experiments 
herein  detailed  were  undertaken. 

In  the  winter  of  1880-1,  and  again  in  the  winter  of 
1882-3,  ten  pure-bred  Berkshire  pigs  of  good  pedigree 
were  selected.  The  ages  of  those  employed  in  the  ex- 
periment of  1880-1  were  as  follows  : 


Pen  No.  1. 
Pen  No.  5. 
Pen  No.  7. 
Pen  No.  2. 
Pen  No.  3. 


Farrowed  April  12, 1879 
"  "12, 1879 

"  "12, 1879 

"  July  4,  1879 

"  "    4,1879 


Pen  No.  4.. Farrowed  July  4,   1879 
Pen  No.  6. .         "  "     4,   1879 

Pen  No.  8..        "  "     4,  1879 

Pen  No.  9. .        "  "4,   1879 

Pen  No.  10.        "        March  20, 1879 


The  three  dates  represent  three  different  litters. 

The  ten  subjected  to  experiment  in  the  winter  of  1882-3 
were  of  three  different  litters,  all  farrowed  in  November, 


EFFECTS   OF   COLD   ON   FATTENING   SWINE.  185 

1881,  and  so  closely  related  on  the  side  of  sire  and  dam, 
as  to  be  practically  identical  in  blood.  The  pigs  employed 
in  both  experiments,  during  the  summer  preceding,  and 
up  to  the  time  the  experiment  began,  were  kept  in  a  large 
pasture-field — mostly  prairie  grass,  but  containing  a  small 
proportion  of  orchard  grass  and  alfalfa  (lucerne) — receiv- 
ing two  ears  of  corn  per  pig  each  day.  The  pigs  were  a 
remarkably  uniform  lot,  and  of  very  excellent  quality. 

In  both  experiments,  the  pens  numbering  1  to  5,  in- 
clusive, were  arranged  in  the  basement  of  a  warm  stone 
barn,  and  pens  6  to  10,  inclusive,  in  an  open  yard  on  the 
south  side  of  a  close  board  fence,  five  feet  high,  but  with- 
out other  protection,  except  straw  "  nests,"  which  were 
furnished  both  sets  as  needed.  A  single  pig  occupied 
each  pen,  an  arrangement  necessary  to  the  proper  appor- 
tionment of  feed,  and  distribution  of  the  results  of  the 
experiment.  It  is  safe  to  say,  that  the  shelter  afforded  to 
the  pigs  kept  in  open  yards  was  greatly  superior  to  that 
ordinarily  given  to  fattening  pigs  in  the  West. 

In  the  first  of  these  experiments,  that  of  1880-1,  in 
pens  1,  2,  5,  6,  7  and  10,  shelled  corn  was  exclusively  fed ; 
in  pens  3,  4,  8  and  9,  a  ration  of  bran,  in  addition  to  the 
corn,  was  fed,  the  amount  varying  but  little  from  two 
pounds  per  day.  The  bran  was  fed  dry,  or  mixed  with 
water,  to  suit  the  tastes  of  the  different  pigs.  At  first 
this  was  eaten  with  apparent  relish,  but  as  the  pigs  in- 
creased in  ripeness  they  seemed  to  care  less  for  the  bran, 
finally  refusing  it  altogether,  and  about  the  eighth  and 
ninth  weeks,  the  bran  ration  was  discontinued. 

In  the  experiment  of  1882-3,  shelled  corn  alone  was 
fed  in  all  of  the  pens.  In  all  the  pens  of  each  experi- 
ment the  animals  were  fed  all  the  corn  they  would  eat, 
great  care  being  taken  that  none  was  left  over  in  the 
troughs  and  wasted,  and  equal  care  was  taken  that  none 
should  be  insufficiently  supplied.  The  pigs  were  fed 
twice  daily,  at  8  A.  M.  and  at  4  p.  M.,  the  feed  being 


186 


SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 


weighed  out  accurately  to  each  pig  at  every  feeding.  If 
at  the  time  of  feeding  the  previous  feed  had  not  been  con- 
sumed, the  surplus  was  removed,  and  a  proportionate  re- 
duction made  in  the  amount  of  the  next  feed.  All  of  the 
pigs  received  whatever  water  they  required. 

In  order  to  see  the  effects  of  variations  in  temperature, 
the  readings  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  in  the  barn 
and  at  the  pens  in  open  yards,  were  recorded  every  morn- 
ing at  8  o'clock  in  both  experiments. 

All  of  the  pigs  were  weighed  at  the  close  of  each  week, 
a  little  before  the  time  of  the  first  feeding  of  the  week 
following. 

In  table  No.  1  is  shown  in  pounds  and  decimals  of  a 
pound  the  weight  of  each  pig  at  the  beginning  of  the  ex- 
periment, the  total  gain,  the  total  gain  per  cwt.,  and  the 
average  gain  per  cwt.  in  the  experiment  made  in  1880-1. 

TABLE   NO.    1, 

SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OP  BACH    PIG  AT  THE    BEGINNING  OP  THE    EXPERIMENT, 

AND  AT  THE  CLOSE  OP  EACH  WEEK,   THE  TOTAL  GAIN,   THE  TOTAL 

GAIN  PER  CWT.   OP  EACH  PIG,   AND  OP  THE  TWO  SETS. 


Pigs  kept  in  warm  pens 
in  the  barn. 

Pigs  kept  in  open  pens  in 
the  yard. 

Date. 

Week  of 
Experi- 

^ 

^ 

^ 

^ 

*d 

5 

*V 

E 

* 

i 

ment. 

0 

§ 

g 

i 

« 
p 

g 

a 

§ 

g 

g 

!~* 

** 

CO 

* 

P 

05 

& 

9° 

f 

o 

Nov.    1,  '80 

Begin'  ing 

"| 

ofExper't 

272 

240     258 

275 

226 

244     229 

249 

252 

285 

Nov.    8,  '80 

First...   . 

281 

257     267 

294 

238 

253 

239 

260 

259 

292 

Nov.  15,  '80 

Second.  . 

296 

266      235 

309 

251 

263 

245 

269 

278 

313 

Nov.  22,  '80 

Third..  . 

313 

282      297 

325 

273 

287     259 

292 

293 

330 

Nov.  29,  '80 

Fourth.   . 

.331 

304     319 

ass 

289 

304     275 

310 

308 

352 

Dec.    6,  '80 

Fifth.  . 

349 

328      336 

357 

305 

323     288 

317 

320 

362 

Dec.  13,  '80 

Sixth  .  .   . 

365 

&39     356 

376 

321 

347 

306 

331 

338 

387 

Dec.  20.  '80 

Seventh  . 

389 

359     373 

396 

340 

356 

321 

339 

346 

392 

Dec.  27,  '80 

Eighth.   . 

400 

371     390 

409 

351 

373 

336 

34^ 

355 

403 

Jan.    3,  '81 

Ninth.. 

413 

381 

399 

422      359 

382 

346     &57 

356 

398 

Jan.  10,  '81 

Tenth..   . 

424 

394 

410 

429      374 

384 

357     366 

356 

407 

Jan.  17,  '81 

Eleventh. 

435 

404 

424 

439 

3S2 

401 

366     372 

369 

409 

Total  gain. 



163 

164 

166 

164 

156 

157 

137     123 

117 

124 

Total    gain 

per  cwt 

50.90  68.30 

64.30 

59.6069.00 

64.  30.  5v».  80  49.  30 

46.4043.50 

Ave'ge  gain 

63.90 

52.20 

per  cwt.. 

EFFECTS   OF   COLD   OX   FATTENING   SWINE. 


18? 


The  remarkable  uniformity  of  this  lot  is  strikingly 
shown  by  the  "total  gain"  in  both  sets,  in  table  No.  1, 
but  particularly  in  the  case  of  the  five  pens  in  the  barn, 
the  difference  between  the  greatest  and  least  gain  being 
only  ten  pounds. 

In  Table  No.  2  the  general  results  of  this  experiment 
(1880-1)  are  given. 

TABLE   NO.    2. 


fPens  1,  2,  and  5  in 

„     ,  the  barn 

Feed,  corn.  4  Peng  6   7   and  10  in 

I     open  yard 

Pens  3  and  4  in  the 

barn 

Pens  8  and  9  in  open 

yard 


Feed,  corn, 
and  bran. 


38 


483.00  2,487.50 

418.00  2,291.00  ... 


330.00  1,589.00232.0021.09    4.13 

I  i 

240  00  1,383.50200.0019.82!  4.14 


4.81    0.70 
5.77    0.83 


A  good  general  view  of  the  results  of  this  experiment 
may  be  had  by  taking  as  the  standard  of  comparison  the 
cost  of  100  Ibs.  of  increase  in  the  two  lots  of  both  series, 
receiving  different  feed  : 

100  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  1,  2,  and    5 cost,  515.02  Ibs.  of  corn. 

100  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  6,  7,  and  10 cost,  548.08  Ibs.  of  corn. 

This  gives  to  the  three  outside  pens,  in  which  corn  was 
exclusively  fed,  a  loss  of  33.06  Ibs.  of  corn  per  cwt.  of 
increase,  as  compared  with  pens  in  which  the  same  feed 
was  used  in  the  barn,  and  in  the  418  Ibs.  of  increase  in 
pens  6,  7,  and  10,  a  loss  of  138.27  Ibs.  of  corn,  or  about 
six  (6)  per  cent,  of  the  2,291  Ibs.  of  corn  fed  in  these  pens. 

100  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  3  and  4,  cost  481.51  Ibs  of  corn  and  70.30  Ibs.  of  bran. 
100  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  8  and  9,  cost  577.70  Ibs.  of  corn  and  83.33  Ibs.  of  bran. 

This  gives  to  the  two  outside  pens  in  which  corn  and 
bran  were  fed,  a  loss  of  96.19  Ibs.  of  corn  and  13.03  of 


188  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

bran  per  cwt.  of  increase  ;  and  in  the  total  of  240  Ibs.  of 
increase  made  in  these  pens,  a  loss  of  230.85  Ibs.  of  corn 
and  31.22  Ibs.  of  bran,  amounting  to  about  16  per  cent,  of 
all  the  corn  and  15  per  cent,  of  all  the  bran  fed  in  pens  8 
and  9  in  the  open  yard. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  pigs  fed  outside,  besides 
giving  much  smaller  returns  for  the  feed  consumed,  in  all 
cases  gave  less  "total  gain,"  and  much  less  "gain  per 
cwt.,"  as  shown  in  table  No.  1,  and  consumed  much  less 
feed  than  those  fed  in  the  barn. 

The  total  loss  from  feeding  in  the  open  yards  was  quite 
marked  throughout,  and  the  variation  in  individual  cases 
was  considerable.  It  was  noticeable  that  the  quietest 
animals,  the  best  feeders  of  those  fed  outside,  endured 
the  severe  weather  the  best,  and  gave  the  largest  returns 
for  food  consumed.  These,  during  the  severe  weather 
which  prevailed  during  the  sixth,  ninth,  and  tenth  weeks, 
passed  much  of  the  time  in  a  condition  closely  resembling 
hibernation ;  they  came  to  their  feed  during  severe 
weather  with  great  apparent  reluctance,  and  rarely 
oftener  than  once  each  day,  during  the  remainder  of  the 
time  lying  very  still,  the  vital  functions  manifestly  mov- 
ing at  the  slowest  pace. 

The  importance  of  a  ration  of  bran  or  other  coarse  feed 
in  connection  with  corn,  for  fattening  pigs,  is  frequently 
urged  by  writers,  on  theoretical  grounds.  It  was  chiefly 
to  test  this  question  that  bran  was  used  with  corn  in  the 
.proportion  before  detailed,  in  two  of  the  pens  of  each  of 
the  two  series.  The  value  of  the  bran  fed  in  this  experi 
ment  may  be  shown  in  a  brief  summary  and  comparison 
of  the  results  obtained.  In  pens  1,  2,  5,  6,  7,  and  10,  in 
which  corn  was  exclusively  fed,  901 1/9  Ibs.  of  increase 
cost  4,778.5  Ibs.  of  corn,  and  in  pens  3,  4,  8,  and  9,  in 
which  corn  and  bran  were  fed,  570  Ibs.  of  increase  cost 
2,975  Ibs.  of  sorn  and  432  Ibs.  of  bran.  That  is, 


EFFECTS    OF   COLD    ON    FATTENING    SWINE. 


189 


100  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  1,  2,  5,  6,  7,  and  10.. cost  530.35  Ibs.  of  corn. 

190  Ibs.  of  increase,  in  pens  3,  4,  8,  and  9 cost  521.93  Ibs.  of  corn  and  75.78 

Ibs.  of  bran. 

Or  8.42  Ibs.  of  corn  had,  in  this  experiment,  a  feeding 
value  equal  to  that  of  75. 78  Ibs.  of  bran — a  fact  which 
seems  to  show  that  corn  alone  can  be  more  profitably  used 
for  fattening  hogs  than  a  mixed  feed  consisting  of  corn 
and  bran. 

In  table  No.  3  is  given  the  weight  of  each  pig  at  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment  and  at  the  close  of  each 
week,  the  total  gain,  the  total  gain  per  cwt.  of  each  pig, 
of  the  two  sets  in  the  experiment  of  1882-3. 


TABLE   NO.    3. 


Pigs  kept  in  rearm  pens 
in  the  barn. 

Pigs  kept  in  open  pens 
in  the  yards. 

Date. 

Expert-        hi 

^ 

* 

>tJ 

^ 

•"0 

*t 

hi 

h^ 

ment. 

(6 

n> 

w 

CD 

OS 

0> 

05 

<? 

03 

P 

p 

P 

B 

P 

P 

P 

P 

P 

f* 

.** 

w 

t^ 

F* 

P 

-Q 

QD 

JO 

S 

Nov.  27,  '82  'Begin  'ing 

ofExper't     252 

211 

223     214 

214 

200 

227 

196 

237 

204 

Dec.    4,  '82  First... 

269 

2C2 

235 

228 

2-8 

218 

251 

216 

257 

209 

Dec.  11,  '8'>  Second.   .      275 

214 

257      253 

251 

234 

270 

236      271 

232 

Dec.  18,  '82  Third  .  .  .  I    293 

253 

268      262 

258 

244 

278 

249      28S 

246 

Dec.  25,  '82  Fourth  .  . 

309 

271      285 

275      295 

253 

S83 

241  j     299 

242 

Jan.     1,  '83  Fifth...   . 

315 

279      291 

285     277 

299 

2r>9      315 

261 

Jan.     S,   '83  Sixth 

324 

282      305 

290      287 

262 

295 

•-'69!     321 

266 

Jan.  15,   '8:5  Seventh  . 

343 

301      319 

311  1     296 

2:8 

319 

276  j     338 

270 

Jan.   22,  '83  Eighth.   . 
Jan.  29,   '83  Ninth..   . 

346 
356 

308'     330 
317      337 

322     301 
3:34,     316 

283      323 
283!     334 

2721     344 
289     360 

275 
286 

Feb.    5,  '83  Tenth..   . 

373 

&30 

347 

346!     322 

288 

337 

283 

363 

282 

Total  gain. 

121 

119 

124 

132     108 

88 

110 

87 

126 

78 

Total    gain 

per  cwt 

48  00 

56  40  55  60 

61  fift  50.40 

44  00 

48.40 

44.4053.1238  20 

Ave'ge  gain! 

54.20 

45.90 

per  cwt..|  

Table  No.  4  shows  for  each  week  of  the  experiment, 
the  average  temperature,  total  feed,  the  feed  for  each  100 
Ibs.  of  live  weight  of  animal,  the  total  gain,  and  the 
number  of  pounds  of  feed  required  for  one  pound  of  gain 
in  the  two  phases  of  the  experiment. 


190 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


TABLE    NO.    4. 


Average 

Feed  for 

Weekly 
Temper- 

Total 

100  Ib*. 
of  live 

Total 

Lbs.  of 
Feed  for 

ature, 

Feed, 

wt.  of 

Gain, 

1  to.  of 

Fahr. 

Ibs. 

Animal. 

Ibs. 

Gain. 

1st  Week.  . 

38° 

228 

19.8 

68 

3.30 

2d 

33° 

293 

24.2 

98 

2.98 

3d 

36° 

329 

24.8 

54 

6.10 

4th 

42° 

334 

24.2 

81 

4.12 

5th 

32° 

312 

21.5 

32 

9.76 

^wuo             *u 

6th 

21° 

277 

18.8 

41 

6.80 

the    barn. 

7th 

29° 

294 

18.9 

82 

3.58 

8th 

19° 

272 

17.1 

37 

7.32 

9th 

27° 

263 

16.1 

53 

4.94 

LOth 

20° 

274 

16.8 

58 

4.72 

1st  Week... 

31° 

243 

21.9 

87.0 

2.80 

2d 

22° 

327 

26.9 

82.0 

3.98 

3d 

21° 

341 

26.0 

62.0 

5.50 

Pigs   kept 

4th 

29° 

333 

25.3 

19.0 

17.55 

in  pens  in 

5th 

15° 

322 

11.8 

73.0 

4.41 

open  yard. 

6th 

5° 

274 

19.0 

16.0 

17.50 

7th 

18* 

279 

19.2 

68.0 

4.11 

8th 

12° 

248 

16.6 

16.0 

15.46 

9th 

15° 

249 

16.3 

55.0 

4.61 

10th 

2° 

226 

14.4 

1.0 

226.00 

From  the  table  No.  4  it  will  be  seen  that  : 

In  pens  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  in  the  barn,  2,878  Ibs  of  corn  gave  604  Ibs.  of  pork,  and 
11    "      6, 7, 8,  9,  and  10,  outside        2,844    "        "  "     479  "        "  Or, 

In  the  warm  pens,  1  Ib.  of  pork  cost  476/ioo  1°8-  °'  corn,  while 
In  tli e  outside  "     1"        "  "    593/10o  " 

Again — In  pens  1,  2,  3,  4,  and   5,  in  the  barn,  one  bushel  of  corn  produced 

11*  Vioolbs.  of  ix>ifc. 

In  numbers  G,  7,  8,  9,  and  10,  outside,  the  same  quality  of  corn  produced  943/ioo 
Ibs.  of  pork. 

Or,  in  other  words  :  of  every  bushel  of  corn  fed  in  the 
five  open  pens,  an  amount  sufficient  to  make  233/1PO  Ibs. 
of  pork  was  used  up  in  keeping  the  animal  warm. 

The  effect  of  very  cold  weather  upon  fattening  pigs  is 
still  more  strikingly  shown  by  comparing  the  results  ob- 
tained in  the  two  sets — barn  and  outside — during  the  four 
weeks  of  lowest  temperature,  namely,  the  sixth,  eighth, 
ninth,  and  tenth  weeks  of  the  experiment,  as  follows : 

In  the  warm  harn,  1.08('i  Ibs.  of  corn  gavo  190  pounds  of  pork. 
In  the  open  pens  outside,  097  Ibs.  <»f  corn  gave  88  Ibs.  of  pork. 


EFFECTS  OF  COLD  ON  FATTENING  SWINE.     191 

Or,  in  the  warm  barn,  during  the  severest  weather,  1  Ib.  of  pork  cost  5.71  11)8. 

of  corn. 
While  outside,  during  the  severest  weather,  1  Ib.  of  pork  cost  11.32  Ibs.  of  corn. 

It  is  found  that  during  the  period  of  highest  tempera- 
ture, when  mild  winter  weather  prevailed  (the  average 
temperature  in  the  barn  was  thirty-seven  degrees,  outside 
twenty-six  degrees),  the  pigs  in  the  barn  made  a  much 
larger  increase  in  weight  (thirty-one  pounds)  than  those 
in  open  yards,  upon  less  corn  (sixty-one  pounds),  giving 
a  pound  of  increase  for  about  four-fifths  of  the  corn 
required  by  the  pigs  in  the  exposed  pens.  In  the  period 
of  greatest  cold  this  variation  is  much  more  marked, 
as  shown  above,  except  in  the  total  corn  consumed,  the 
pigs  in  the  barn  consuming  eighty-nine  and  a  half 
pounds  more  of  corn  than  those  kept  outside.  The 
small  amount  of  feed  consumed  outside,  during  this 
period,  is  safely  attributable  to  the  severe  weather  that 
prevailed  during  the  time  referred  to. 

The  principal  results  of  this  experiment  may  be  shown 
in  a  few  brief  comprehensive  statements  : — 

(1.)  In  the  warm  barn,  2,877Y2  pounds  of  corn  gave 
604  pounds  increase  in  the  weight  of  the  pigs,  while  in 
the  open  yards  2,844  pounds  of  corn  gave  479  pounds  of 
increase. 

Or,  in  the  exposed  pens,  the  cost  of  one  pound  of 
increase  was  almost  twenty-five  per  cent  greater  than  the 
cost  of  one  pound  of  increase  in  the  warm  barn. 

(X.)  Besides  giving  less  of  "total  gain"  and  "gain 
per  cwt."  in  every  pen,  during  every  week  of  the  experi- 
ment, the  pigs  fed  outside  gave  much  smaller  returns  for 
feed  consumed,  but  this  was  especially  marked  during 
the  weeks  of  lowest  temperature. 

Thus,  during  the  three  weeks  of  greatest  cold,  the  pigs 
in  open  yards  required  17.50,  15.46,  and  226  pounds  of 
corn  for  each  pound  of  increase,  while  in  the  warm  barn, 
during  the  same  three  weeks,  6.80,  7.32,  and  4.73 


192  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

pounds  of  corn  respectively  were  expended  for  one  pound 
of  increase. 

(3. )  In  this,  as  in  the  experiment  made  two  years  ago, 
I  have  observed  that  the  quietest  pigs,  the  "  bestfeeders," 
suffered  least  from  cold,  ate  the  best,  and  gave  the  largest 
returns  for  feed  consumed. 

(4.)  The  fluctuations  in  the  weekly  gain  were  very 
much  greater  in  the  pens  in  the  open  yards ;  but,  as 
shown  in  Table  No.  IV.,  whenever  little  gain  or  a 
positive  loss  was  sustained — as  in  the  pens  8  and  10, 
during  the  fourth  week,  and  pens  G  and  7,  during 
the  sixth  week — an  enormous  gain  was  made  during  the 
week  following,  even  though  the  temperature  continued 
low,  as  though  the  animals  were  making  a  determined 
effort  to  recover  lost  ground. 

(5.)  The  fluctuations  in  the  total  feed  consumed,  or  in 
the  amount  of  feed  consumed  for  each  100  pounds  of 
live  weight  of  animal,  were  not  great  in  the  different 
pens,  or  in  different  weeks  of  each  pen,  although  these 
fluctuations  were  greatest  in  the  "outside"  pens,  the 
smallest  amount  of  feed  being  consumed  during  the 
coldest  weather.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  however,  that 
in  the  weeks  following,  those  showing  the  least  gain  in 
flesh  or  the  greatest  loss,  when  the  largest  increase  was 
made,  as  stated  above,  the  increase  in  the  amount  of 
feed  was  inconsiderable  :  in  some  cases  nothing.  Thus 
in  pens  G  and  7,  in  the  sixth  week,  and  in  pen  8  in 
fourth  and  eighth  weeks,  the  pigs  lost  1,  4,  8  and  4 
pounds  respectively,  while  in  same  order  consuming 
55'/2,  48,  61  and  431/,  pounds  of  corn.  During  the 
week  following,  when  the  same  pigs  gained  in  weight, 
1G,  24,  18,  and  17  pounds,  the  enormous  gain  was  made 
at  a  cost  of  55y2,  52,  GO  and  461/,  pounds,  respectively, 
of  corn. 

Surely  these  facts  can  lead  to  but  one  conclusion,  that 
it  will  pay  to  give  pigs  warm  quarters  during  the  feeding 


FEEDING    FOK    FAT    AND    LEAN.  193 

period.  May  we  not  reasonably  infer  from  these  same 
facts,  that  all  classes  of  domesticated  animals,  for  what- 
ever purposes  they  are  kept,  will  give  the  largest  profits 
when  well  housed  and  made  comfortable  ? 


CHAPTER    XX. 
FEEDING    FOR    FAT  AND    LEAN. 

It  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  during  the  period  of  say 
thirty  years  in  which  general  attention  has  been  paid  to 
improving  and  largely  rearing  improved  breeds  of  swine, 
the  tendency  has  constantly  been  towards  producing 
animals  that  yielded  a  maximum  quantity  of  fat  or  lard 
with  only  a  minimum  of  lean  meat  or  muscle.  This  is 
easily  traceable  to  the  fact  that  the  principal  food  of  the 
swine  in  the  regions  where  they  are  most  raised  is  Indian 
corn,  which  is  a  fat-former  unequaled  by  any  other  grain 
grown  or  used  on  American  farms.  Among  other  results 
of  feeding  almost  exclusively  generation  after  generation 
of  animals  a  food  so  ill  balanced  or  imperfectly  adapted 
for  a  general  maintenance  ration,  are  an  impaired  vitality, 
a  weakened  bony  structure,  decreased  fecundity,  and  in 
the  matured  carcass  a  ratio  of  fat  to  lean  meat  much 
greater  than  the  average  consumer  finds  profitable  to  buy 
or  palatable  to  eat.  Among  the  subjects  that  the  better 
class  of  hog-raisers  are  now  coming  to  consider  as  of  im- 
portance are  the  treatment  and  foods,  or  combinations  of 
foods,  best  adapted  to  economically  produce  pork  with 
such  an  increased  percentage  of  lean,  or  judicious  ad- 
mixture of  lean  with  fat,  as  shall  be  most  healthful, 
most  palatable,  and  most  eagerly  sought  by  those  upon 
whom  their  market  depends,  and  best  for  their  families. 
Helping  to  the  solution  of  such  problems  has  already 


194  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

become  recognized  as  a  part  of  the  legitimate  work  at 
the  different  State  Experiment  Stations  and  Agricultural 
Colleges,  and  a  valuable  beginning  in  that  particular 
line  has  been  made  by  Prof.  J.  W.  Sanborn,  at  the 
Missouri  Agricultural  College,  and  by  Prjf.  W.  A. 
Henry,  director  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
at  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  The  experiments  of 
each  produced  a  great  similarity  in  results  and  are  very 
interesting.  In  making  a  condensed  report  of  his  effort 
in  that  direction  for  this  volume,  for  which  he  will  have 
the  thanks  of  the  reader  as  well  as  the  author,  Prof. 
Henry  says  : 

"  Once  knowing  that  foods  of  different  compositions 
do  affect  the  frame  and  flesh  of  animals  differently,  and 
how  and  why,  we  are  in  position  to  go  ahead  and  build 
up  a  better  system  of  swine  husbandry  than  we  now  have. 
Knowing  corn  to  be  a  universal  hog  food  and  often  used 
almost  exclusively  by  many  of  our  farmers,  and  further 
knowing  that  chemistry  ihows  that  corn  is  excessively 
rich  in  the  carbohydrates  or  heat  and  fat-formers,  while 
it  is  low  or  poor  in  protein  and  ash  elements  which  go  to 
make  up  bone  and  muscle,  we  thought  to  feed  it  exclu- 
sively to  one  lot  of  hogs  that  we  might  see  the  effects  it 
produces.  To  another  lot  it  was  thought  best  to  feed  a 
ration  excessively  rich  in  protein,  which  makes  it  the 
opposite  of  the  first  ration.  To  this  end  we  made  up  a 
ration  of  shorts,  sweet  skim  milk  and  a  little  dried  blood. 
Dried  blood  is  not  often  used  as  a  food,  but  is  wonder- 
fully rich  as  may  be  supposed  in  the  same  elements  as 
dried  beef.  Dried  blood,  skim  milk  and  shorts  are  each 
comparatively  rich  in  protein,  so  it  will  be  seen  our  feed 
for  the  second  lot  was  rich  in  muscle-making  food,  and 
if  there  is  anything  in  what  chemists  tell  us  about  foods, 
our  pigs,  having  such  widely  different  rations,  should 
show  it  in  their  bodies,  if  the  character  of  the  food  makes 
any  difference. 


FEEDING    FOR    FAT    AND    LEAN.  195 

"Out  of  a  litter  of  eight  pigs,  six  were  selected,  even  in 
size  and  form,  for  the  trial,  when  they  were  100  days  old. 
Up  to  the  beginning  the  pigs  were  all  fed  alike,  from  the 
same  trough,  a  mixture  consisting  of  shorts,  corn  meal, 
skim  milk  and  buttermilk.  The  pigs  were  cross-bred 
Jersey  Reds  and  Poland-Chinas.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  trial  the  six  were  divided  into  two  lots  of  three  each, 
and  to  Lot  A  was  fed  a  ration  consisting  of  one  part  of 
dried  blood,  six  parts  of  shorts,  and  fourteen  parts 
of  sweet  skim  milk  by  weight.  To  Lot  B  was  fed  all  the 
fine  ground  corn  meal  they  could  properly  consume. 
Water  was  freely  provided  for  each  lot,  and  each  had  the 
run  of  a  small  yard  back  of  the  feeding  pen  in  which 
exercise  could  be  taken  ;  all  went  on  with  remarkable 
uniformity  from  first  to  last,  with  no  accident  of  any 
kind  during  the  whole  period  of  136  days.  The  follow- 
ing shows  in  a  condensed  form  the  amount  of  food  con- 
sumed by  the  two  lots  during  the  trial  of  136  days  : 

LOT  A,   FED  FOR  LEAN. 

Amount  of  sweet  skim  milk  consumed 3,302     Ibs. 

Amount  of  shorts  consumed ..-l,415'/7  Ibs. 

Amount  of  dried  blood  consumed 235"/7  Ibs. 

LOT  B,   FED  FOR  FAT. 

Amount  of  corn  meal  consumed .1,690  Ibs. 

"The  digestible  matter  in  the  food  fed  to  the  two  lots 
was  as  follows: 

Protein.      Carbohydrates. 

Total  digestible  matter  fed  to  Lot  A 428  Ibs 833  Ibs. 

Total  digestible  matter  fed  to  Lot  B 153  Ibs 1,193  Ibs. 

"  It  will  be  seen  that  each  lot  received  about  the  same 
number  of  pounds  of  actual  food,  but  that  the  propor- 
tion of  the  protein  to  the  carbohydrates  varied  greatly. 
Protein  goes  to  make  muscle,  though  it  may  be  used  for 
heat  and  fat  in  the  body.  The  carbohydrates  (starch, 
sugar,  etc.)  cannot  make  muscle  in  the  body  of  an 
animal,  though  they  may  save  it  from  waste  and  decay, 
but  are  used  for  maintaining  the  bodily  heat  and  for 


19G  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

making  fat.  Our  corn-fed  hogs  then  were  fed  a  very 
fattening  food,  while  the  other  lot  were  given  a  large 
amount  of  muscle-  (or  lean  meat)  making  material. 
Here  we  have  our  feeds  so  widely  different  in  character 
that  the  effect  should  be  very  evident  in  the  carcasses  of 


Fig.  12. — FED  FOR  LEAN.    Lot  A,  No.  1,  Protein  fed. 

the  hogs,  if  the  character  of  the  food  affects  the  compo- 
sition of  the  body. 

"The  hogs  were  slaughtered  Nov.  8,  1886,  a  skilled 
butcher  assisting,  every  operation  being  conducted  with 
great  care  and  precision.  After  taking  the  live  weight 
of  each  animal,  it  was  killed  by  slow  bleeding,  and  the 
blood  caught  and  weighed.  The  viscera  were  taken  out 


FEEDING    TOTl    TAT    AND    LEAN.  197* 

and  each  organ  weighed  and  the  dressed  hogs  hung  up 
to  cool  and  stiffen. 

"  Upon  being  taken  to  the  block  each  dressed  hog  was 
laid  on  his  back,  and  first  the  head  was  severed,  next  the 
body  was  cut  square  across  between  the  fifth  and  sixth 


Fig.  13.— FED  FOR  FAT.    Lot  B,  No.  1,  Carbohydrate  fed. 

Figs.  12  and  13  show  in  cross  section  the  proportional  size  of  the  muscles 

(lean  meat)  in  the  necks  of  hogs  of  each  lot. 

ribs,  and  again  at  the  loin  or  small  of  the  back.  A 
painter  was  employed  to  sketch  the  appearance  and  dis- 
position of  the  fat  and  lean  meat  as  exposed  by  the  cuts. 
Fearing  the  painter  was  not  exact  enough,  a  photogra- 
pher was  employed  for  the  same  purpose,  and  we  were 


198  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

thus  enabled  to  preserve  for  future  reference  and  study 
that  which  would  have  otherwise  soon  been  lost. 

"The  illustrations  which  are  herewith  presented  show 
the  proportion  and  disposition  of  the  fat  and  lean  in 
some  of  the  cuts.  We  present  six,  three  of  each  lot. 


Fig.  14. — FED  FOR  LEAN.    Lot  A,  No.  2,  Protein  fed. 

The  first  two  show  what  we  found  on  severing  the  heads 
of  the  first  hog  of  each  lot.  The  second  two  show  in 
the  same  way  the  cuts  made  between  the  fifth  and  sixth 
ribs  of  the  hogs  numbered  t(  two"  in  each  lot ;  while  the 
last  two  engravings  show  the  loin  cut  of  the  hogs  num- 
bered "  three  "  of  each  lot.  In  each  of  the  engravings 


FEEDING    FOR    FAT    AND    LEAN.  199 

the  dark  shaded  parts  represent  lean  meat  or  muscle, 
while  the  fat  is  shown  by  the  white  parts.  As  in  cutting 
across  the  body  at  the  three  places  named  we  cut  square 
across  most  of  the  muscles,  the  reader  can  see  the  rela- 
tive size  of  each  muscle  in  cross  section  in  two  hogs  of 


Fig.  15.— FED  FOB  FAT.    Lot  B,  No.  2,  Carbohydrate  fed. 

Figs.  14  and  15  show  in  cross  section  the  proportional  size  of  the  muscles 
(lean  meat}  over  the  heart  of  hogs  of  each  lot. 

each  lot.     The  illustrations  are  made  from  the  dressed 
hogs  lying  on  their  backs. 

"  The  reader  is  asked  to  give  these  illustrations  more 
than  a  passing  glance — to  study  each.  It  will  be  seen 
in  each  case  the  muscles  (red  or  lean  meat)  of  the  protein 


\ 


200 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


fed  hogs  arc  larger  than  the  same  muscles  of  those  fed 
the  ration  rich  in  carbohydrates.     Even  the  muscles  of 


Fig.  16. — FED  FOR  LEAN.    Lot  A,  No.  3,  Protein  fed. 


Fig.  17.— FED  FOB  FAT.    Lot  B,  No.  3,  Carbohydrate  fed. 

Figs.  16  and  17  shoto  in  cross  section  the  proportional  size  of  the  muscles 

(lean  meat)  of  the  hogs  of  each  lot  cut  through  the  small  of  the  back. 

the  neck  are  stronger,  as  shown  in  the  first  two  cuts. 
On  the  back  over  the  heart,  the  muscles  of  Lot  A  show 


FEEDING    FOR    FAT    AND    LEAN.  201 

far  less  fat  between  them, than  of  Lot  B.  The  most  re- 
markable difference,  though,  is  in  the  small  of  the  back, 
where  it  will  be  noted  that  Lot  A  has  about  twice  as 
much  muscle  as  Lot  B. 

'*  The  viscera  of  each  lot  was  carefully  dissected  out 
and  weighed  and  some  most  remarkable  differences  be- 
tween the  two  lots  were  found.  The  hair  was  saved 
and  weighed.  Each  hog  was  carefully  skinned  and  the 
skins  weighed.  The  large  muscle  of  the  back,  also 
the  tenderloin  muscles,  were  dissected  and  weighed. 
The  bones  were  freed  from  tendons  and  flesh  by  boiling 
and  the  thigh  bones  were  broken  on  a  testing  machine, 
to  determine  the  strength  of  each.  Each  bone  was  laid 
on  two  iron  edges  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  set 
four  inches  apart;  a  similar  iron  edge  was  brought  down 
from  above  just  midway  between  the  two  edges  below. 
This  plate  was  crowded  down  by  a  lever  until  the  bone 
broke.  In  this  way  we  broke  five  thigh  bones  of  Lot  A, 
and  the  same  of  Lot  B.  We  found  that  the  aggregate 
pressure  required  to  break  five  thigh  bones  with  the  pro- 
tein fed  hogs  was  4,550  pounds,  or  an  average  of  over 
909  pounds  per  each  bone  ;  against  2,855  pounds,  or  571 
pounls  per  each  bone,  with  the  corn  fed  hogs.  Here 
was  a  weakening  of  the  bones  of  over  300  pounds  each 
in  136  days. 

"IMPORTANT  CONTRASTS  IN  WEIGHTS. 
"  The  following  table  gives  the  most  important  facts  in 
the  case,  the  weights  being  of  three  hogs  in  each  lot. 

LOT  A.  LOT  B. 

Fed  for  lean.          Fed  for  Fat. 

Ibs.  Ibs. 

Total  live  weight..- 669V4 561% 

Total  dressed  weight.. 541»/4_. 451 

Total  external  fat 150    156 

Total  lean  meat 244    178>/i 

Total  weight  of  kidneys. 27    19 

Total  weight  of  spleens 16    12 

Total  weight  of  livers 146»/a 109'/a 

Total  weight  of  blood 296    186 

Breaking  strain  5  thigh  bones 4550    2855 


202 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


*'But  figures  placed  in  this  way  are  largely  lost  to  the 
general  reader,  so  I  will  take  the  liberty  of  placing  them 
in  a  different  form  : 

1.  The  live  weight  of  Lot  A  (fed  for  lean)  is  19  per  cent  greater  than 
Lot  B.  fed  for  fat. 

2.  The  dressed  weight  of  Lot  A  is  21  per  cent  greater  than  Lot  B. 
These  differences  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  considering  what  follows. 

3.  The  kidneys  of  Lot  A  weighed  42  per  cent  more  than  those  of 
LotB. 

4.  The  spleens  of  Lot  A  weighed  33  per  cent  more  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

5.  The  livers  of  Lot  A  weighed  32  per  cent  more  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

6.  The  blood  (caught  on  killing)  of  Lot  A  weighed  59  per  cent  more 
than  that  of  Lot  B. 

7.  The  hair  on  Lot  A  weighed  36  per  cent  more  than  that  of  Lot  B. 

8.  The  skin  of  Lot  A  weighed  36  per  cent  more  than  that  of  Lot  B. 

9.  The  large  muscles  of  the  back  (llio  spinalis)  of  Lot  A  weighed  64 
per  cent  more  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

10.  The  two  tenderloin  muscles  (/fcxu  magnus)  of  Lot  A  weighed  38 
per  cent  more  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

11.  Thirty-eight  per  cent  of  all  the  meat  that  could  be  cut  from  the 
carcasses  of  Lot  A  was  fat,  while  the  fat  of  Lot  B  was  46  per  cent  of  all 
that  could  be  separated. 

12.  The  bones  of  Lot  A  were  23  per  cent  heavier  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

13.  The  thigh  bones  of  Lot  A  were  65  per  cent  stronger  with  the  test- 
ing machine  than  those  of  Lot  B. 

"  In  testing  the  strength  of  the  bones  another  remark- 
able exhibition  of  the  difference  in  the  lots  was  obtained. 
By  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  number  of  pounds 
pressure  required  to  break  the  thigh  bones  of  the  hog 
was  as  follows  : 


POUNDS  STRAIN 
REQUIRED  TO 
BREAK. 

/•Vr.sy 
Bone. 

Second 
lion,. 

Lor  A. 

Number  1 

1030 
840 
800 

1090 
790 

» 

Number  2 

Number  3  

Total  for  lot  

4550 

LOT  B. 

Number  1 

645 
600 
450 

580 
580 
# 

Number  2                  

Number  3  

Total  for  lot... 

2855 

*  A  ham  from  a  hog  of  each  lot  was  cut  across  to  examine  the  meat, 
and  in  this  way  one  thigh  bone  was  spoiled  for  this  test. 


FEEDING    FOR    FAT    AND    LEAK.  203 

"We  observe  an  excess  in  weight  of  most  of  the  impor- 
tant organs  of  the  interior  cavity  in  the  hogs  fed  for  lean 
over  those  fed  for  fat.  These  differences  cannot  be  acci- 
dental, as  they  are  the  average  of  the  lots  in  each  case, 
and  the  work  was  too  carefully  done  to  have  errors 
sufficient  to  cover  such  differences.  It  will  be  noted 
that  the  liver,  kidneys  and  spleen  are  all  considerably 
larger  with  Lot  A  than  with  Lot  B.  A  most  strik- 
ing difference  is  seen  in  the  blood  obtained  upon 
killing  the  hogs.  From  the  three  hogs  fed  for  lean 
we  got  18  pounds,  8  ounces  of  blood,  while  from  the 
three  fed  for  fat  only  11  pounds,  10  ounces.  While 
the  blood  thus  obtained  is  not  by  any  means  all  that 
is  in  the  body  of  the  hog,  it  is  remarkable  that  we 
should  get  so  much  more  from  one  lot  than  from 
the  other. 

"  Before  making  any  deductions  we  wish  to  make  plain, 
if  possible,  that  which  seems  a  most  important  consider- 
ation, and  one  that  must  be  clearly  understood  before  we 
can  use  these  experiments  as  we  should.  All  through 
this  discussion,  we  have  carried  the  impression  that  we 
could  put  lean  meat  or  fat  on  the  hog  at  will ;  but  can 
we  ?  Is  it  not  true  that  in  every  animal  there  is  a 
certain  limitation  to  muscular  development  beyond  which 
it  cannot  go  ?  The  blacksmith  or  the  baseball  player 
develops  a  large  amount  of  muscle,  but  the  limit  is  not 
very  high,  after  all,  with  them,  and  probably  a  man 
weighing  175  pounds  cannot  add,  either  by  what  he  eats 
or  the  exercise  he  takes,  over  a  very  few  pounds  of  real 
meat  or  muscle  to  his  body;  indeed  when  men  "go  into 
training  "  they  reduce  their  weight  as  a  rule  instead  of 
increasing  it,  getting  rid  of  fat  and  water  in  the  body. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  men  have  a  tendency  to  laying 
on  fat,  the  limit  they  may  reach  may  double  their  nor- 
mal weight.  We  may  say,  then,  that  the  possible  mus- 
cular development  of  an  animal  has  a  narrow  limit 


204  9WINE    ;M  s;;  \  NDRY. 

comparatively,  while  the  possible  fatty  development  has 
n  much  wider  range. 

"We  should  hold,  it  would  seem,  that  our  hogs  which 
show  the  best  muscular  development  are  only  normally 
developed,  or  at  least  have  not  departed  far  from  the 
normal,  and  that  whatever  we  find  in  them  is  a  con- 
dition to  be  held  as  a  standard,  while  our  hogs  which 
have  grown  fat  and  show  a  variation  from  the  lean  hogs 
are  abnormal. 

"  Having  assumed  the  above  as  correct  we  can  make 
a  much  clearer  statement  of  the  deductions  which  may 
be  drawn  from  the  experiments.  The  experiments  show 
that  when  we  feed  to  our  hogs  a  ration  rich  in  carbo- 
hydrates but  lacking  in  protein,  like  corn  meal,  we  will 
find: 

"  1.  That  there  is  an  excessive  development  of  fat  not 
only  on  the  outside  of  the  muscles  and  beneath  the  skin 
but  also  among  the  muscles.  2.  That  the  muscles  of  the 
body  fail  to  develop  to  their  normal  size,  especially  some 
of  the  most  important  ones,  as  those  along  the  back. 
3.  That  an  abnormally  small  amount  of  hair  and  a  thin 
skin  results.  4.  That  while  the  brain,  heart  and  lungs 
do  not  seem  to  change  in  weight,  the  spleen,  liver  ar.l 
kidneys  are  unusually  small.  5.  The  amount  of  blood  in 
the  body  is  greatly  reduced  from  the  normal.  G.  The 
strength  of  the  bones  may  be  reduced  one-half. 

"We  may  conclude  that  a  system  of  feeding  which  robe 
the  hog  of  half  its  blood  and  half  the  natural  strength  of 
its  bones,  and  produces  other  violent  changes,  is  a  most 
unnatural  one,  and  must,  if  persisted  in,  end  in  giving 
us  a  race  of  animals  unsatisfactory  to  all  concerned. 
From  parents  thus  weakened  must  come  descendants 
that  will  fall  easy  victims  to  disease  and  disaster. 
Knowing  the  facts  as  here  set  forth,  can  we  any  longer 
wonder  that  our  hogs  are  weak  in  constitution  and 
easily  break  down  when  attacked  by  disease  ?  Nor  is 


FEEDING     FOR    FAT    AND     LEAN.  205 

this  all ;  the  meat  from  such  animals  can  hardly  be  of 
flavor  and  composition  satisfactory  to  the  consumer. 

"If  even  a  part  of  what  has  been  set  forth  is  correct, 
is  it  not  high  time  we  turned  our  energies  toward 
better  methods  ?  To  do  this  calls  for  higher  thought 
and  better  care,  but  I  fully  believe  no  extra  outlay  of 
money;  rather,  I  believe,  we  can  feed  hogs  more  profit- 
ably by  rational  methods  than  by  the  unscientific  and 
shiftless  ways  now  only  too  common.  First  of  all,  we 
must  see  to  it  that  breeding  sows  are  fed  a  proper  ration 
i:i  which  protein  compounds  form  a  liberal  share.  The 
young  pigs  must  likewise  have  a  goodly  allowance  of 
I  rotoin,  while  the  mature  hogs,  when  fattening,  can  be 
fad  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates,  especially  if  we 
wish  to  make  a  large  proportion  of  lard.  The  food 
articles  at  our  command  which  are  rich  in  protein  are 
skim  milk,  buttermilk,  shorts,  bran,  peas,  green  clover, 
and  the  like.  No  farmer  can  afford  to  manage  his  farm 
with  a  minimum  of  these  muscle-making  foods;  they 
should  be  supplied  abundantly  and  at  a  reasonable  cost 
if  we  will  only  study  to  do  so. 

"Shall  we  raise  less  corn,  then?  Not  at  all.  The  corn 
crop  is  the  best  of  all  we  raise,  and  let  the  word  be 
"more,"  rather  than  less.  We  need  it  all,  but  we  must 
not  forget  that  protein  is  somewhat  lacking  in  the  corn. 
AVe  may  compare  our  corn  to  the  bricks  which  go  into  a 
building,  and  the  protein  food  to  the  mortar  which 
cements  the  bricks  together.  He  who  would  lay  up 
bricks  without  mortar  builds  foolishly,  and  his  house 
will  tumble.  Should  he  find  out  his  mistake,  such  a 
man  should  not  from  that  date  neglect  the  bricks  and 
turn  his  whole  attention  to  the  mortar.  Plenty  of  good 
strong  mortar  and  an  abundance  of  bricks  are  what  he 
needs.  We  do  not  want  less  corn,  but  we  want  more 
clover,  more  shorts,  more  bran,  more  peas,  more  skim 
milk,  and  more  clover  to  bring  the  highest  results. 


20G  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Without  attempting  to  give  any  exact  rules  for  guidance, 
the  following  statements  may  not  be  out  of  place :  Dur- 
ing gestation,  breeding  sows  should  have  only  a  small 
allowance  of  corn,  the  feed  being  mainly  that  which  will 
go  to  give  her  young  good  sound  bodies.  Such  feed 
would  be  shorts  (middlings  or  ship-stuff),  bran,  skim 
milk,  buttermilk  and  clover.  When  suckling  her  young, 
of  course  milk  is  one  of  the  best  articles  at  our  command. 
When  weaned,  the  pigs  may  get  say  two  parts  of  milk  by 
weight,  one  part  of  shorts  and  one  part  of  corn  meal.  A 
run  on  good  clover  would  go  far  to  make  a  good  frame. 
When  nearing  maturity  the  ration  can  be  changed  more 
and  more  to  the  carbonaceous,  and  for  the  last  two 
months,  when  fattening,  the  feed  can  be  largely  corn,  if 
one  desires  fat  pork,  but  if  lean  juicy  meat  is  desired 
the  muscle-making  foods  must  be  continued." 

In  writing  of  some  further  experiments  he  made  with 
other  lots  of  hogs,  to  see  if  the  results  confirmed  those 
previously  made,  Prof.  Henry  says  that  "  in  general 
they  did."  To  one  of  these  lots  corn  meal  was  fed  ;  to 
another  skimmed  milk  and  corn  meal,  and  shorts  and 
corn  meal  to  a  third.  His  conclusions  from  what  he  has 
seen  are  that  "  skimmed  milk  and  corn  make  the  largest 
hog  with  the  strongest  bones  ;  that  corn  alone  makes  the 
next  largest  hog  with  the  weakest  bones  ;  that  two-thirds 
shorts  and  one-third  corn  meal  make  the  smallest  hog 
with  the  most  muscle,  most  blood,  and  bones  very  much 
stronger  than  the  corn  alone." 


In  the  experiment  by  Prof.  Sanborn  there  was  fed  to 
one  lot  of  pigs  a  ration  of  four  parts  of  ship-stuff 
(shorts  or  middlings)  to  one  part  of  dried  blood,  this 
forming  a  ration  excessively  rich  in  protein;  to  the  other 
lot  was  fed  a  ration  of  corn  meal  which,  as  before  stated, 
is  excessively  rich  in  carbohydrates.  Two  hogs  of  each 


GRADUAL  DISAPPEARANCE   OF  WHITE   SWINE.      207 

lot  were  killed  and  examined  upon  reaching  maturity, 
with  the  results  shown  in  the  following  table: 


LOT  I—  Fed  for  Lean. 

LOT  II—  Fed  for  Fat. 

No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  1.     |    No.  2. 

Live  weight  of  pig 

Ibs. 
138 

1 
3 

2 
6 
12 
2 

38 
64 

4 

oz. 
6* 
7* 
9* 
3 
21 
8* 
2 
4 
10 
10 
4* 
14 

11 

15* 

Ibs. 
170 

1 
4 

4 
5 
11 
3 

50 
79 

6 

oz. 
4* 
8* 
15* 
i 
3* 
8* 
10 
14 
12* 
12* 
4* 
3 

13 

11 

Ibs. 
139 

1 
2 

5 
5 
10 
4 

46 
58 

4 

oz. 
15 
7 
15* 
5* 
2* 
4* 
4* 
4 
8 
5 
3* 
4 
4 
9* 
U 

Ibs. 
170 

1 
2 

7 
7 
11 
4 

70 
57 

6 

oz. 
141 
10 
13* 
9 
3 
5* 
13* 
8 

4* 
1* 
11 
11 

Heart 

Lungs 

Liver   

Spleen 

Kidneys  .. 

Leaf  

Paunch 

Intestines 

Fat  of  intestines  .. 

Brains 

Fat  of  body 

Lean  and  bone  

Hair      

Blood  and  loss  in  cooling  . 

CHAPTER    XXI. 

THE  GRADUAL  DISAPPEARANCE    OF  WHITE    SWINE 
FROM  AMERICAN  FARMS. 

Most  of  those  who  were  familiar  with  hog-raising  in 
the  United  States  twenty  years  ago,  are  aware  that  white 
swine  were  much  the  most  numerous,  and  that  in  many 
localities  those  of  any  other  color  were  so  rare  as  to  be 
regarded  almost  as  curiosities.  Since  that  time,  or  per- 
haps more  particularly  since  about  1865-6,  the  black  or 
black-spotted  swine  have  grown  rapidly  in  popular  favor; 
so  much  so,  in  many  sections,  as  to  practically  displace 
all  others. 

Our  attention  was  incidentally  called  to  this  fact  many 
times  during  the  year  1881,  and  in  November  of  that 
year  mention  of  it  was  made  in  a  prominent  publication 
devoted  to  live  stock,  only  to  be  vigorously  combated  as 
a  mischievous  and  exaggerated  statement.  The  vigor  of 


208  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

these  contradictions  caused  us  to  make  some  effort  to 
ascertain  whether  the  position,  as  to  the  disappearance 
of  the  white  hogs,  was  or  was  not  really  well  taken,  our 
own  personal  observation  having  been  made  more  eep  - 
cially  in  Kansas.  As  to  the  swine  displayed  at  the  Hrti 
(virtually)  State  fairs  there  in  1381,  we  found  that  at 
the  exhibition  at  Lawrence  there  were  about  300  speci- 
mens, but  one  of  which  was  white  ;  that  one  was  a  Ches- 
ter boar  shoat,  brought  by  some  Illinois  breeders,  with 
their  display  of  twenty-four  black  hogs,  in  hopes  of  find- 
ing some  one  in  the  State  who  would  buy  him.  At  the 
State  fair  held  at  Topeka,  the  Secretary  informed  us  that 
there  were  entered  in  the  Berkshire  rings,  368;  Poland- 
China,  350;  Essex,  23  ;  Jersey  Red,  18;  Chester  White, 
1 ;  total  number  of  entries,  700. 

From  the  Secretary  of  the  Illinois  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture and  his  reports,  we  learned  that  ?it  their  State  fair  in 
1877,  there  were  843  entries  of  swine,  and  all  but  184  of 
them  were  entries  of  Poland-Chinas,  Berkshires,  or  Es- 
sex; in  1878,  he  reported  084  entries,  all  Poland-Chinas, 
Berkshires  or  Essex,  but  223;  in  1879,  he  reported  510 
entries,  74  of  them  Chesters,  66  Suffolks,  and  376  Po- 
land-Chinas, Berkshires,  or  Essex;  in  1880,  he  reported 
437  entries,  of  which  269  were  Poland- Chinas,  Berk- 
shires, or  Essex.  Secretary  Fisher  wrote,  that  in  1881 
the  entries  were,  Poland-Chinas,  117;  Berkshires,  141; 
Essex,  57;  total  black,  315,  against  112  entries  of  Ches- 
ters and  Small  Yorkshires.  The  Reports  of  the  Indiana 
Board  of  Agriculture  stated  that  at  the  State  fair  of  1879 
there  were  297  entries  of  swine,  of  which  25  were  large 
white  breeds,  28  "Essex  and  Suffolk,"  and  4  "Red," 
against  240  Poland-Chinas  and  Berkshires;  in  1880,  there 
were  314  hogs  entered,  and  287  were  of  other  than  white 
breeds.  Under  date  of  December  8th,  nit.,  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Ohio  Board  of  Agriculture  wrote:  "Of  the 
hogs  exhibited  at  our  fairs  for  two  or  three  years  past, 


GRADUAL   DISAPPEARANCE   OF   WHITE  SWINE.      209 

about  70  per  cent,  were  of  the  dark  breeds;  the  white 
breeds  seem  to  be  rapidly  on  the  decrease." 

Prof.  L.  N.  Bonham,  of  Ohio,  a  gentleman  who  knows 
much  of  the  swine  interests  of  his  section,  wrote  us 
December  7th: 

"  In  Southern  Ohio,  I  think,  white  hogs  are  not  so  numerous 
as  ten  years  ago.  Occasionally,  some  farmer,  with  more  enter- 
prise than  good  management,  concludes  his  swine  are  not  so 
good,  do  not  make  as  wonderful  growth  as  some  breeders  claim 
in  their  advertisements  of  white  or  red  hogs,  and  accordingly 
invests  in  a  Chester  WbiV?  or  Jersey  Red  boar.  We  have  had  a 
few  such  cases  in  this  county,  but  they  do  no  better  than  our 
Butler  County  Poland-China  swine,  and  the  buyers  do  not  con- 
tinue in  the  use  of  t^em.  These  new  purchases  only  add  to 
the  number  of  monqprcls,  of  off-color.  They  are  not  better  feed- 
ers nor  are  they  cbotera  proof,  as  one  breeder  claims  for  his  red 
hogs.  So  rare  are  white  hogs  here,  that  they  are  a  curiosity." 

Of  the  more  recent  State  fairs  in  Iowa,  Secretary  John 
R.  Shaffer  wrote: 

"  The  number  of  entries  of  dark  breeds  of  hogs  at  our  Stata 
Fair  of  J880,  was  226 ;  of  white  breeds,  104.  Fair  of  1881, 
there  were  of  the  dark  breeds,  253  ;  white  breeds,  110.  This 
would  indicate  about  one-half ;  but  our  white  hogs,  I  do  not 
think,  woiild  exceed  20  per  cent.  Poland-Chinas  and  Berk- 
shires  are  the  predominant  breeds,  with  the  Polands  in  the 
lead." 

As  to  the  great  fairs  of  the  North-west,  held  at  Min- 
neapolis, Minn.,  we  wrote  to  the  Secretary,  Mr.  Charles 
N.  Clarke,  who  replied: 

"  The  ratio  of  white  to  dark  hogs  exhibited  at  our  fairs  the 
past  three  years,  has  been  about  2£  to  7£,  or  about  25  per  cent, 
white  to  75  per  cent.  dark.  I  judge  from  observation  and  ex- 
perience, that  while  the  white  hogs  are  not  to  disappear  alto- 
gether in  or  from  the  Western  States  for  many  years,  they  will 
be  bred  only  in  comparatively  small  numbers.  I  think  while 
the  old,  large-boned  white  hogs  are  running  out,  small-boned 
breeds  will  work  in." 

Mr.  R.  C.  Judson,  Secretary  of  the  Minnesota  State 


210  SWINE  HUSBANDRY. 

Agricultural  Society,  in  answer  to  inquiries,  said,  De* 
cember  9th: 

"I  send  you  the  entries  cf  swine  as  they  appear  on  my 
books.  Of  Bei  kshires,  there  were  6  exhibitors ;  of  Poland- 
Chinas,  8  ;  of  Essex,  2  ;  of  Suffolks,  1 ;  and  of  Chester  Whit.  s. 
2— or,  all  told,  18  exhibitors  of  dark  hogs,  and  3  of  whites.  As 
to  the  number  of  animals,  there  were  27  Berkshires,  2  Suffolks, 
26  Poland-Chinas,  3  Chester  Whites,  and  5  Essex,  or  a  total  of 
58  dark,  and  5  white  hogs." 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  has  been  for  years  famed  for  its  An- 
nual Exposition  and  Agricultural  Fair,  where  breeders  of 
the  most  approved  kinds  of  live  stock  have  been  at  great 
pains  to  exhibit  representatives  from  their  herds  and 
flocks.  For  several  years,  Mr.  Wm.  Epperson  has  IK -en 
the  Superintendent  of  the  Swine  Department  of  the  K\- 
position,  and  he  makes  the  statement  that  the  percentage 
of  dark-colored  hogs  shown  there  has  been  about  as  fol- 
lows: In  187G,  90  per  cent.;  in  1877,  85  per  cent.;  in 
1878,  90  per  cent;  in  1879,  85  per  cent.;  in  1880,  all 
were  black;  in  1881,  all  were  black. 

Statements  from  the  St.  Louis  and  other  leading  fairs 
showed,  relatively,  about  the  same  conditions  as  to  num- 
bers as  the  foregoing,  but  the  stock  markets,  and  not  the 
fairs,  are  the  places  where  it  is  practicable  to  form  really 
correct  estimates  of  the  color,  quality,  and  numbers  of 
the  hogs  that  are  raised  from  year  to  year.  The  fact  - 
that  a  good  many  white  hogs  appear  at  the  fairs  may  in- 
dicate that  their  owners  are  either  men  of  superior 
energy  and  enterprise,  or,  to  dispose  of  the  stock,  they 
have  realized  the  need  of  such  advertising  as  fair-going 
affords  them.  Kansas  City  is  no  mean  hog  market,  and 
there  were  handled  at  its  stock  yards,  in  1881,  about 
1,000,000  head.  At  our  request,  the  Superintendent  of 
the  Stock  Yards,  Mr.  H.  P.  Child,  made  some  observa- 
tions for  us,  and,  Dec.  7th,  wrote: 
"  Fortunately,  for  my  plan,  we  had  quite  a  heavy  run  this 


GRADUAL  DISAPPEARANCE   OF   WHITE   SWINE.       211 

morning ;  and,  taking  advantage  of  it,  I  went  tl  rough  our 
pens,  and  counted  all  the  hogs  that  were  from  two-thirds  to  all 
white,  and  at  the  same  time  tallied  the  car-loads.  In  this  man- 
ner, I  found  491  white  hogs  scattered  through  110  car-loads. 
Our  run  for  the  month  just  passed  was  1,678  cars,  and  113,132 
hogs,  an  average  of  over  67  per  car.  Assuming  these  to  be  in 
the  same  ratio,  gives  us  7,330  for  the  110  cars.  This  gives  the 
proportion  at  6.66  white,  and  93.34  black  hogs  hi  every  100 
head — a  larger  proportion  than  I  estimated,  my  guess  being 
about  two  to  the  car,  while  this  shows  nearly  four.  This  I  con- 
sider a  very  correct  estimate  and  criterion  to  gauge  by,  as  the 
hogs  that  I  looked  over  were  received  from  all  points  and  roads 
that  feed  our  market.  I  had  not  time,  or  really  opportunity, 
to  make  separate  estimates  on  localities,  but  I  could  see  that 
they  varied  considerably,  in  that  some  few  cars  were  very 
largely  white,  as  high  as  40  head  in  one  car,  and  from  20  to  30 
in  several  others,  while  on  the  other  hand  I  would  pass  load 
after  load  without  a  white  hog  in  them.  This  is,  of  course,  for 
the  current  year.  I  have  no  means  of  arriving  at  an  estimate 
on  preceding  years,  other  than  personal  recollection,  which 
would  place  the  percentage  in  1871  and  1872  at  about  half  of 
each,  decreasing  to  about  20  per  cent,  white  in  1874,  and  a 
gradual  decrease  to  the  present  proportion  from  that  time  to 
1881." 

Most  of  our  readers  do  not  need  to  be  told  of  the 
amount  of  business  done  at  the  Chicago  "Onion  Stock 
Yards,  or  of  the  millions  and  millions  of  hogs  that  pass 
through  them.  We  asked  John  B.  Sherman,  the  long- 
time superintendent  of  those  yards,  to  give  his  estimate 
of  the  ratio  of  white  to  black  or  dark  hogs  that  had 
been  handled  at  the  yards  in  1879,  1880,  and  1881,  and 
his  statement  is  this: 

"  For  the  years  mentioned,  I  will  say,  about  90  per  cent,  of 
hogs  received  at  the  Union  Stock  Yards  were  dark  colored." 

With  a  disposition  to  ascertain  if  the  same  great  ratio 
of  dark  hogs  would  be  shown  by  a  later  and  more  ex- 
tended counting  at  the  Kansas  City  yards,  Superinten- 
dent Child,  on  the  8th  of  February  of  this  year  (1883), 
instructed  his  employes  at  the  several  scales  to  keep  a» 


212  SWINE  HUSBANDRY. 

accurate  and  separate  account  of  all  hogs  weighed,  in 
which  the  white  or  red  color  predominated,  and  report. 
to  him  each  evening.  These  numbers,  deducted  from 
the  total,  gave  the  number  of  black  or  dark  hogs;  the 
weighing  included  all  the  hogs  received  up  to  the  night 
of  March  7th — one  month — and  aggregated  108,086 
head,  of  which  5,364  were  white,  and  737  red,  the  per- 
centage being  94.36  black,  4.96  white,  and  .68  red. 

In  speaking  of  the  matter,  Mr.  Child  said:  "My  re- 
port in  1881  made  no  account  of  red  hogs,  and  all  that 
were  here  at  the  time  were  classed  with  the  blacks,  so 
that  to  show  just  how  much  farther  the  black  breeds 
have  crowded  out  the  white  now  than  then,  we  must  add 
the  red  to  the  black  again,  which  gives  us  95.04  against 
4.96  per  cent.,  or  a  gain  for  the  black  hogs  in  the  year 
and  a  half  of  about  one  and  seven-tenths  per  cent.  I 
am  not  able  to  report,  except  in  a  general  way,  as  to  the 
difference  in  districts  or  on  the  several  lines  of  railroad 
centering  here,  though  the  Northern  part  of  Kansas  and 
Southern  Nebraska  will  run  somewhat  lighter  in  white 
than  the  above,  and  have  very  few  red  hogs,  and  my 
judgment  is  that  over  half  of  the  latter  come  from 
Western  Missouri." 

That  Mr.  Child's  estimates  are  substantially  correct, 
we  have  many  times  been  satisfied  by  viewing  in  the 
yards  of  the  great  packing  houses  at  Kansas  City,  where, 
in  the  large  droves,  amounting  to  thousands  of  head, 
purchased  by  them  almost  daily,  it  is  oftentimes  diffi- 
cult to  find  as  many  as  half  a  dozen  on  which  the  black 
does  not  predominate.  At  the  same  time,  the  red  or 
sandy-colored  swine,  so  rare  in  the  West  a  few  years  ago, 
are  becoming  slightly  more  common  and  more  favorably 
considered. 

[Personal  observation  convinces  us  that  practically 
the  same  state  of  affairs  exists  at  this  writing — 1888. 
THE  AUTHOR.] 


SOME   GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS.  213 

CHAPTER     XXII. 

SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

ROOTING   AND   ITS   PREVENTION. 

Nothing  seems  more  natural  to  the  porcine  family 
than  to  spend  a  part  of  their  time  in  rooting  in  the 
ground,  and  in  this  way  they  sometimes  do  great  injury 
to  pastures  and  meadows  where  they  are  kept  or  allowed 
to  roam.  Some  way  of  preventing  this  has  heen  found 
a  necessity  and  has  been  the  means  of  introducing  nu- 
merous patented  articles  in  the  way  of  "  Hog  Rings," 
4<  Ringers,"  "  Hog  Tongs,"  "  Hog  Tamers,"  etc. 

The  patented  rings  are  usually  sold  at  prices  not  unrea- 
sonably high,  but  buyers  of  rings  are  impressed  with  the 
idea  that,  to  use  them  successfully,  tongs,  ringers,  etc., 
must  be  bought  also,  and  for  these  outrageous  prices 
are  charged,  which,  altogether,  makes  the  ring  invest- 
ment like  the  little  parties  that  are  sometimes  made, 
where  it  costs  one  five  or  ten  cents  to  get  in,  and  as 
many  dollars  to  get  out. 

A  heavy  mattress  needle,  in  a  stout  handle,  or  the 
small  blade  of  a  good  sharp  pocket  knife,  answers  every 
purpose  for  making  the  holes  in  the  animal's  nose,  and 
new  horseshoe  nails,  or  common  No.  12  wire,  make 
rings  as  good  as  those  covered  by  patents.  If  nails  are 
used,  they  should  be  hammered  into  a  circular  form, 
preparatory  to  inserting,  and  when  in,  they  can  be 
closed  with  a  pair  of  pincers. 

If  wire  is  used,  it  should  be  cut  into  pieces  of  proper 
length,  put  in,  and  the  ends  twisted  with  the  pincers,  on 
the  awl  near  the  handle.  The  ends  should  be  well 
twisted  together,  and  project  half  or  three-quarters  of 
an  inch,  as  the  ring  will  stay  in  better,  and  be  more 
of  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the  hog  in  rooting. 


214  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Moore  describes  three  ways  of  preventing 
swine  from  rooting: 

"  1st.  Place  saltand  wood  ashes  in  some  considerable  quantity, 
at  certain  places  on  the  ground,  so  that  the  earth  will  become 
saturated  with  the  salt  and  lye.  It  will  be  found  that  the  hogs 
will  frequent  these  spots  and  work  out  some  holes,  but  thereby 
satisfy  their  rooting  desires,  and  the  sod  will  be  left  undisturbed. 

"2d.  Cut  the  rim  of  the  snout  with  your  pocket  knife,  slant- 
ing, as  to  the  end  and  top  of  the  nose,  and  leave  both  ends 
attached,  so  that  the  rim  will  slip  up  and  down  when  the  hog 
attempts  to  root.  This  method,  in  my  experience,  is  less  liable 
to  allow  the  rim  growing  fast  again,  than  when  the  cutting  is 
done  by  a  "  hog  tamer,"  provided  it  is  done  correctly. 

"  3d.  Put  two  rings  in  the  snout.  Buy  common  iron  rings, 
such  as  are  used  by  tinners,  one  inch  in  diameter,  and  when 
the  rings  are  opened  sufficiently,  and  the  animal  is  secured 
with  the  usual  cord  loop  on  his  nose,  take  a  clip  punch  and 
make  a  hole  on  each  side  of  the  center  and  in  the  rim  of  the 
snout,  insert  the  rings,  and  force  the  ends  straight." 

EAR   MUTILATION   AND   EAR  MARKING. 

We  wish  to  enter  our  protest  against  the  practice  so 
common  with  many  farmers,  of  cutting  and  disfiguring 
the  ears  of  their  hogs  in  a  brutal  manner,  under  the  plea 
that  without  it  they  could  not  distinguish  their  own  hogs. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  some  mark  by  which  the  owner 
may  know  his  own,  and  a  small  hole  or  slit,  in  some  cer- 
tain place  in  one  ear,  need  not  disfigure  it,  and  yet  be 
just  as  reliable  for  identification  as  the  horrible  carving 
and  mutilation  of  both  ears. 

Well  bred  hogs  have,  naturally,  fine  ears,  which  add 
much  to  their  appearance  of  uniformity  and  quality,  and 
it  seems  to  a  lover  of  good  stock  almost  like  sacrilege  to 
have  them  mangled,  as  is  sometimes  done  by  savage  dogs 
and  more  savage  men. 

SOWS   EATING   THEIR   PIGS. 

No  one  but  the  breeder  who  has  had  the  misfortune  to 
see  a  fine  litter  01  pigs  destroyed  by  their  dam — herself 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  215 

perhaps  the  best  sow  he  has — can  have  a  sense  of  the 
annoyance  and  bitter  disappointment  such  an  occurrence 
involves. 

Of  such  cases  a  monthly  Report  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  says  : 

"  It  is  well  known  that  sows  not  unfrequently  attack  and  destroy 
their  young;  or,  if  prevented  from  this,  will  not  letdown  their 
milk,  so  that  the  young  pigs  necessarily  die  from  want  of  nourish- 
ment. When  this  condition  of  things  is  not  caused  by  a  diseased 
condition  of  the  uterus,  it  is  said  that  the  sow  can  be  brought  to 
terms  by  pouring  a  mixture  of  ten  to  twenty  grains  of  spirits  of 
camphor,  with  one  to  three  of  tincture  of  opium,  into  the  ear.  The 
sow  will  immediately  lie  down  on  the  side  to  which  the  applica- 
tion was  made,  and  remain  quiet  in  this  position  for  several  hours, 
without  interfering  with  her  pigs ;  and  on  recovery  from  the  stu- 
por, will  have  lost  her  irritability  in  regard  to  them.  The  experi- 
ment has  been  tried  in  Germany  hundreds  of  times,  according  to 
one  of  the  agricultural  journals,  without  any  injurious  effects.  It 
is  also  said  that  the  eating  of  pigs  by  the  parent  sow  can  be  readily 
prevented  by  rubbing  them  all  over  with  brandy,  and  making  the 
same  application  about  the  nose  of  the  sow  herself." 

John  Boynton,  of  Stephenson  Co.,  Illinois,  describes 
the  way  in  which  he  saved  a  litter  of  pigs  from  a  vicious 
sow,  as  follows  : 

"I  have  a  fine  Chester  White  sow  that  has  devoured  several 
pigs  of  other  sows,  and  as  she  was  heavy  with  pig  herself,  I  ex- 
pected that  when  she  littered,  she  would  eat  them  as  fast  as  she 
could  get  to  them,  I  watched  her  closely ;  she  walked  up  to  the 
first  pig  and  very  deliberately  opened  her  mouth  wide  to  take  it  in. 
I  screamed  at  her,  and  she  then  turned  upon  me:  I  continued  to 
menace  her  until  she  had  to  lay  down  to  have  another  pig ;  I  then 
got  quietly  into  the  pen,  and  as  she  was  naturally  very  gentle,  I 
succeeded  in  getting  the  pig  to  her  teats,  and  so  I  stayed  with  her 
constantly,  all  the  while  petting  the  sow,  and  as  fast  as  the  pigs 
came,  would  divest  them  of  their  entanglements  and  place  them 
at  the  teats,  which  they  took  right  hold  of,  and  before  the  sow 
was  aware  of  it,  a  maternal  affection  was  enkindled  in  her  heart 
for  her  offspring.  She  had,  and  saved,  eight  of  the  finest  pigs  I 
ever  saw.  They  are  now  over  two  weeks  old,  and  the  mother  feels 
all  the  affection  necessary  for  them.  It  is  well  to  treat  sows  gently 


216  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

at  all  times;  then  at  " littering"  time  you  can  do  what  you  ploase 
with  them." 

QUARRELSOME  AND  FIGHTING  HOGS. 

When  a  considerable  number  of  hogs  are  penned  to- 
gether for  fattening,  the  owner  is  sometimes  much  an- 
noyed by  finding  them  disposed  to  chase  and  bite  one 
another,  and  occasionally,  to  such  an  extent,  that  those 
least  able  to  defend  themselves,  are  chased  and  worried 
to  death. 

We  have  not  been  troubled  in  this  way  with  our  own 
hogs,  but  as  suggestive  to  those  who  are,  we  present  the 
following  from  "  Berkshire,"  (a  most  intelligent  breeder, 
withal),  of  Ridge  Farm,  Ills.  : 

"Fifteen  years  ago,  I  began  feeding  a  large  number  of  hogs  on 
floored  pens,  around  a  flouring  mill,  and  they  commenced  biting 
each  other.  One  hog  would  give  another  a  bite,  when  he  would 
run  and  squeal,  and  eacli  hog  he  passed  near  would  give  him  a  bite, 
and  thus  they  kept  the  poor  animal  going,  until  he  died.  I  would 
go  to  the  pen  and  stop  them,  but  th*>y  would  soon  commence  again- 

"  I  concluded  they  were  feverish,  which  caused  them  to  be  rest 
less,  and  that  they  bit  each  other  for  the  want  of  something  to 
cool  their  fever. 

"  I  tried  a  variety  of  remedies,  and  at  length  fed  them  some 
stone  coal,  which  effected  a  complete  cure.  I  have  continued,  ever 
since,  to  feed  my  hogs  all  the  coal  they  would  eat,  and  have  never 
had  any  more  trouble  with  their  biting  each  other." 

THE  CONDITION  OF  SOWS  FOR  BREEDING. 

In  our  efforts,  in  years  past,  to  get  all  the  information 
possible  about  swine,  and  their  management,  we  were  al- 
ways confronted  with  the  statement  that,  a  sow  tolerably 
fat  at  the  time  of  taking  the  boar,  would  have  but  few 
pigs,  and  they  of  such  inferior  quality  as  to  be  worthless, 
while  it  was  more  than  likely  that  the  sow  and  pigs  both 
would  be  lost. 

Hearing  this  so  much,  we  concluded  that  what  every- 
body said,  must  be  near  the  truth. 

We  are  not  so  positive  about  this  as  we  were. 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS. 

Two  neighbors  raise  some  model  Berkshires,  and  run- 
ning a  flouring  mill,  have  an  abundance  of  the  best  of 
feed,  which  they  use  liberally  with  their  breeding  sows, 
keeping  them  in  pretty  good  bacon  order  all  the  time. 
We  used  to  feel  that  we  were  doing  a  good  stroke  of  mis- 
sionary work,  when  we  cautioned  them  about  keeping 
their  sows  in  so  much  flesh,  and  that  barrenness  and  fail- 
ure were  sure  to  follow.  Th«y  accepted  the  advice  kindly, 
but  continued  to  feed  their  sows  liberally,  and  in  spite  of 
it  all,  raised  a  plenty  of  good  pigs. 

Two  sows  that  they  thought  very  highly  of,  were  kept 
uncommonly  fat,  and  we  selected  these  two  as  the  ones 
to  illustrate  our  argument,  and  show  by  their  non-breed- 
ing that  they  had  been  entirely  too  well  kept. 

When  the  sows  farrowed,  one  had  fourteen,  and  the 
other  fifteen  strong  pigs,  and  since  then  we  have  labored 
but  very  little  to  convince  these  gentlemen  that  "a  fat 
sow  won't  breed."  It  has  been  their  turn  to  laugh. 

We  cannot  doubt  that  hogs  kept  and  fed  at  flouring 
mills,  get  much  nearer  a  perfect  food,  than  those  kept  on 
corn  exclusively,  and  especially  is  this  true  of  brood-sows 
and  pigs. 

IS   IT  PROFITABLE  TO   CURE   PORK? 

Mr.  Thomas  Wood  furnishes  us  an  account  of  an  inter- 
esting experiment  made  by  him,  as  follows  : 

"  A  few  years  ago  I  made  an  experiment  or  two,  in  order 
to  find  out  whether  it  was  most  profitable  to  sell  my 
pork  or  to  make  bacon  of  it,  and  then  sell  at  the  prevail- 
ing prices. 

"I  killed  a  Chester  White  hog  that  weighed,  dressed, 
440  Ibs.  pork,  worth  7c.  per  lb.— $30.80.  When  cut  up 
for  salting,  the  different  parts  weighed  as  follows  : 

Hams 116   Ibs. 

Shoulders 140     " 

Sides 81     " 

Jowl 16*  " 

353i  Ibs. 


218  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

"  Leaving  80  J/a  Ibs.  weight  of  lard,  chine,  or  hack  hone, 
ribs,  face,  feet,  and  other  trimmings,  worth  5c.  per  lb.— 
$4.32. 

"  The  meat,  when  cured,  was  hung  in  a  smoke-house  for 
six  weeks,  then  sold  and  weighed,  as  follows : 

Hams,         106  Ibs. ,  at 14c $14.84 

Shoulders,  130  "     at lie 14.30 

Sides,  75  "     at lOc 7.50 

Jowl,  15  "     at 6c 90 

336  Ibs.        average  lite.  $37.54 

Value  of  bacon  sold $87.54 

Value  of  trimmings 4.83 

Total $41.86 

Value  of  the  pork  at  market  price 30.80 

Profit  on  making  the  pork  into  bacon $11.08 

"This  hog  was  about  fifteen  months  old,  and  the 
shrinkage  in  weight  in  making  bacon  waa  27  Ibs. 

"At  the  same  time  I  killed  a  pig  five  or  six  months  old, 
in  order  to  ascertain  the  difference  in  shrinkage. 

The  pig  weighed  dressed 140  Ibs. 

When  cut  up,  the  hams,  shoulders,  sides,  and  Jowl  weighed 11: 

Leaving  the  weight  of  lard,  chine,  face,  feet,  and  trimmings 29  Ibs. 

"The  meat  weighed  just  the  same  when  taken  out  as 
when  put  in  the  salt  tub  ;  when  dried  and  smoked  the 
same  length  of  time  as  the  other  hog,  the  weight  was  as 
follows : 

Hams,         31  Ibs.,  sold  at 14c.  per  lb $4.34 

Shoulders,  28  "  "     He.  3.08 

Sides,          30  «  "     10c.      "     3.00 

Jowl,  6"  "     6c.      " 36 

95  Ibs.        average  IHc.      "     $10.78 

Trimmings,  29  Ibs.,  at  5c.  per  lb 1.45 

$12.23 
The  pork,  140  Ibs.,  at  7c.  per  lb.,  was  worth 9.80 

Profit  on  making  pork  into  bacon $2.43 

' '  From  this  it  appears  that  the  shrinkage  is  proportion- 
ately much  greater  in  the  pig  pork,  than  in  the  pork  of 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  219 

the  older  and  more  mature  hog,  also  that  there  is  a  greater 
proportional  weight  of  trimming." 

REPORTS   OF   REMARKABLE   GROWTH. 

In  the  January  (1876)  Number  of  the  National  Live 
Stock  Journal,  a  correspondent  published  an  item  stating 
that  Mr.  A.  Messer,  of  Mankato,  Minn.,  had  just  butch- 
ered a  thorough-bred  Berkshire  pig,  five  months  and 
twenty-three  days  old,  that  weighed,  when  dressed,  323  Ibs. 

This  was  such  a  marvelous  story  that  we  were  incredu- 
lous enough  to  doubt  it,  and  took  early  occasion  to  call 
through  the  same  journal,  for  some  further  proof  than 
the  ex  parte  statement  of  one  (possibly  very  much  inter- 
ested) individual.  Other  breeders  also  insisted  that,  if 
such  a  feat  had  been  accomplished,  the  parties  cognizant 
of  it  should  certify  to,  and  make  public  what  they  knew. 

This  elicited  an  affidavit  from  the  man  who  bred  the 
pig,  as  to  its  age,  one  from  Mr.  Messer,  who  raised  and 
fed  it,  as  to  its  identity,  and  another  from  the  butcher 
who  dressed  it,  as  to  its  weighing  the  323  Ibs.  net,  all 
three  of  which  substantiated,  in  effect,  the  original  state- 
ment. After  this,  the  breeders  of  fine  Berkshires  through- 
out the  country,  who  had  never  raised  a  pig  to  half  that 
weight  at  the  same  age,  demanded  to  know  how  such 
rapid  and  enormous  growth  had  been  produced,  and  in 
course  of  some  months  it  was  published  to  the  world  in 
the  following  language  : 

"  He  was  kept  in  a  lot  15  x  20  feet,  with  a  few  boards  laid  over 
one  corner,  to  form  a  shelter,  and  under  this  shelter  was  a  good 
bed  of  straw.  The  pig  was  kept  in  these  quarters  until  the  weather 
became  cool,  when  a  comfortable  little  sty  was  built  in  one  corner, 
6x6  feet.  The  pig  was  fed  on  the  swill  from  the  house,  with  corn 
meal  stirred  in ;  but  had  no  cooked  food  whatever,  except  pieces 
of  bread  from  the  table,  which  were  thrown  into  the  swill. 

"He  was  fed  regularly  three  times  a  day,  and  had  all  lie  would 
eat.  He  would  eat  all  he  could,  then  go  grunting  to  his  bed  of 
straw — lie  down,  and  continue  to  grunt.  In  fact,  the  most  of  the 
pig's  time  was  spent  in  grunting,  eating,  and  growing." 


090  SWINE    Iirsi:A\I>RY. 

Although  accompanied  by  proof,  this  statement  sur- 
passes our  belief,  as  it  seems  beyond  the  range  of  human 
possibilities  that  such  extraordinary  pigs  can  be  produced. 
by  any  such  ordinary  means,  and  we  take  the  responsibility 
of  advising  our  fanner  friends,  when  looking  around  for 
extra  good  pigs  to  breed  from,  to  discount  such  stories  ai 
the  foregoing  at  least  50  per  cent. 

PRIZE  ANIMALS  FOR   BREEDING. 

It  is  a  very  common  practice  with  farmers  and  bre< 
to  attend  the  County,  State,  and  Inter-state  Fairs,  for  the 
purpose  of  selecting,  from  those  on  exhibition,  s wine  for 
breeders,  and  it  is  considered  quite  an  achievement  t  > 
attend  one  or  more  of  the  prominent  expositions  and  take 
home  to  the  farm  the  pig,  or  pair  of  pigs,  decorated  with 
the  blue  ribbon.  They  look  fine,  and  are  fine,  but  not 
fine  enough  to  offset  the  disappointment  and  chagrin  of 
the  credulous  buyer,  who,  after  patient  effort,  fails  in 
nine  cases  out  of  ten,  to  ever  produce  from  them  any 
stock  that  looks  as  those  did  at  the  fair. 

The  show-yard  may  be  the  best  place  to  see  and  buy 
stock  for  show  purposes,  but  not  for  breeding. 

Only  the  initiated  know  the  various  and  peculiar  meth- 
ods employed,  in  fitting  up  those  animals  to  which  were 
awarded  premiums,  over  such  strong  competition  as  they 
encounter  at  leading  fairs.  "\Vc  recently  conversed  with 
a  breeder,  whose  greatest  triumph  in  life  had  consisted 
in  having  premiums  awarded  to  tv/o  of  his  pigs,  at  one 
of  the  great  St.  Louis  fairs. 

He  said  he  "scooped"  all  competitors,  and  gave  the 
following  as  some  of  the  methods  used  to  produce  such 
meritorious  (?)  animals: 

"  They  were  fed  on  beefsteak,  cut  into  small  bits,  and 
dropped  into  new  warm  milk,  as  much,  and  as  often  as 
they  would  eat.  They  had  daily  a  bath  of  warm,  soft 
water  and  castile  soap,  after  which  their  hair  was  dressed 
with  olive,  or  sweet  oil." 


SOME   GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  221 

Premium  pigs,  produced  by  such  treatment,  afterwards 
getting  only  common  fare,  do  but  poorly  indeed,  and  to 
expect  them  to  reproduce  a  family  of  show  pigs,  is  to 
cherish  a  dream  that  will  fail  of  realization. 

Breeders  of  fine  swine,  as  of  fine  cattle,  frequently  sac- 
rifice their  best  animals  for  show  purposes,  and  their  pre- 
paration for  this,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  unfits  them  for 
thereafter  successfully  reproducing  their  kind. 

FEEDING   COOKED  WHEAT. 

The  following  statement,  of  remarkably  rapid  gain  in 
weight  from  feeding  hogs  on  cooked  wheat,  is  given  by  a 
correspondent  of  the  Cincinnati  Gazette: 

"  On  the  4th  of  August,  1870, 1  put  up  15  hogs,  weighing  2,400 
Ibs.,  and  fed  them  5±  bushels  cooked  wheat  the  first  week.  On 
the  llth  their  weight  was  2,600  Ibs. ;  gain,  200  Ibs.,  or  a  gain  of 
13£  Ibs.  to  the  hog,  being  nearly  2  Ibs.  a  day.  The  next  week  I 
fed  them  G  bushels  of  the  cooked  wheat,  producing  an  increase  of 
215  Ibs.,  or  14fc  Ibs.  to  the  hog,  being  a  gain  of  over  2  Ibs.  per  head 
a  day.  The  third  week  I  fed  them  10  bushels  of  cooked  wheat, 
resulting  in  again  of  260  Ibs.,  or  17^  Ibs.  a  head,  or  210|2i  a  day. 
The  fourth  week  I  fed  them  Hi  bushels  of  cooked  wheat,  the 
gain  being  320  Ibs,  or  21£  l»s.  a  head,  or  a  fraction  over  3  Ibs.  a  day 
each.  The  hogs  were  then  sold  and  taken  away.  They  gained  in 
four  weeks  995  Ibs.  on  32£  bushels  of  wheat.  In  this  manner  of 
feeding  I  received  a  good  price  for  the  wheat,  as  the  hogs  were 
sold  at  $8.25  per  100  Ibs." 

HOGGING   OFF  COKN  FIELDS. 

The  Hon.  J.  M.  Millikin,  in  the  National  Live  Stock 
Journal,  writes  as  follows  : 

"  I  am  aware  that  the  people  who  reside  in  tlie  East,  where  grain 
is  high,  will  be  greatly  shocked  to  think  that  any  one  would  pre- 
sume to  say  anything  in  behalf  of  such  a  *  lazy,  wasteful,  and  un- 
tidy '  mode  of  using  a  crop  of  corn.  Indeed,  western  men  can  be 
found  who  will  denounce  the  unfarmer-like  proceeding  in  unmeas- 
ured terms.  But  let  us  see  if  something  cannot  be  said  in  support 
of  what  some  may  regard  as  a  very  objectionable  practice. 

"  In  managing  our  farming  operations,  there  are  two  things  that 
should  not  be  lost  sight  of : 


222  SWINE   HUSBANDBY. 

"  First. — We  should  aim  to  so  manage  our  affairs  as  to  realize  a 
good  profit  on  our  labors  and  investment ;  and 

"  Secondly. — To  so  cultivate  our  land  as  to  maintain,  if  not  to 
increase,  its  productiveness. 

"  If  you  have  a  field  of  corn  of  a  size  suited  to  the  number  of 
hogs  you  intend  to  fatten,  supplied  with  water,  there  is  no  plan 
you  can  adopt  of  feeding  said  corn  to  your  hogs  that  will  produce 
better  results  than  by  turning  your  hogs  into  the  field,  where  they 
can  eat  at  their  pleasure.  As  a  rule,  the  weather  is  generally  good 
in  September  and  October.  If  so,  there  will  be  no  loss  of  grain, 
while  the  saccharine  juice  of  the  stalks  will  contribute  somewhat 
to  the  improvement  of  the  hogs.  The  expense  saved  in  gathering 
the  corn,  and  in  giving  constant  attention  in  feeding,  is  quit*  an 
important  item  to  any  man  who  has  other  pressing  work  to  per- 
form. Besides,  hogs  turned  into  a  field  for  fifty  or  sixty  days  are 
likely  to  do  better  than  they  will  do  under  other  ordinary  circum- 
stances. 

"  There  is  no  plan  of  using  the  products  of  a  corn  field  better 
calculated  to  maintain  its  fertility  than  the  hogging-off  process. 
Everything  produced  off  the  ground  is  returned  to  it ;  and  if  the 
proper  mode  is  adopted  of  plowing  everything  under  in  the  fall, 
the  soil  will  be  improved  rather  than  impoverished.  This  is  my 
theory  upon  the  subject,  which  is  sustained  by  my  experience  and 
observation,  and  which  I  have  occasionally  urged  on  the  attention 
of  others. 

"  A  very  few  days  since  I  was  in  conversation  with  some  farm- 
ers upon  this  subject,  when  a  very  reliable,  careful,  and  excellent 
farmer  gave  this  account  of  his  own  experience,  which  I  give,  with 
the  remark  that  his  statements  are  entitled  to  the  fullest  confi- 
dence. He  said  :  4 1  have  cultivated  one  field  eleven  successive  years 
in  corn,  and  every  fall  turned  in  my  fattening  hogs,  and  fed  it  off. 
My  crops  of  corn  rather  increased  than  diminished.  In  the  spring, 
after  feeding  off  the  c  jrn  for  eleven  years,  I  sowed  the  field  in 
spring  barley.  I  had  a  crop  of  forty  bushels  per  acre.  I  plowed 
the  barley  stubble  under,  and  sowed  the  same  field  in  wheat. 
The  next  harvest  I  had  a  crop  of  wheat  of  forty-two  and  a  half 
bushels  per  acre.' 

"  Thus  you  have  the  theory,  the  practice,  and  the  result,  of  the 
hogging-off  process." 

THE  RELATION  BETWEEN  THE   PRICES  OF  CORN  AND  PORK. 

While  it  is  perhaps  true,  that  the  bulk  of  the  corn  fed 
to  hogs  does  not  give  a  return  of  ten  pounds  of  pork, 


A 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  g&j 


live  weight,  to  the  bushel,  it  is 
of  corn  will  make  that  much,  and  more,  if  properly  han- 
dled, and  where  it  does,  the  following  will  serve  as  a  basis 
for  careful  calculations  : 

We  present  it  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  think  it  maybe 
approximative^  correct. 

Feeding  corn  worth  121/.,  cents  per  bushel,  makes  pork 
costing  l'/a  cent  per  pound. 

Feeding  corn  worth  17  cents  per  bushel,  makes  pork 
costing  2  cents  per  pound. 

Feeding  corn  worth  25  cents  per  bushel,  makes  pork 
costing  21/,  cents  per  pound. 

Feeding  corn  worth  from  33  to  40  cents  per  bushel, 
makes  pork  costing  4  cents  per  pound. 

Feeding  corn  worth  50  cents  per  bushel,  makes  pork 
costing  5  cents  per  pound. 

Or  :  pork  at  5  cents  per  pound,  gross,  gives  50  cents 
per  bushel  for  corn. 

At  4  cents  per  pound,  gross,  gives  from  33  to  40  cents 
per  bushel  for  corn. 

At  21/,  to  3  cents  per  pound,  gross,  gives  from  25  to 
30  cents  per  bushel  for  corn. 

KECORDS    AND     RECORDING. 

Beginning  with  the  organization  at  Springfield,  Illinois, 
in  1875,  of  the  American  Berkshire  Association,  great 
attention  has  been  paid  in  America  to  recording  pedi- 
grees of  thoroughbred  breeding  swine.  The  value  and 
importance  of  this  are  not  only  quite  generally  conceded 
here  but  also  in  England,  where  the  British  Berkshire 
Association,  following  the  Yankee  example,  has  already 
issued  ten  volumes  of  herdbooks. 

At  this  writing  (January,  1897)  there  have  been  issued 


224 


SWINE  liUSUAXDUY. 


fourteen  volumes  of  the  American  Berkshire  Record, 
containing  pedigrees  as  follows.  The  table  also  shows 
the  number  of  pedigrees  in  the  editor's  hands  for  entry 
in  Volume  XV : 


Boars. 

Sows. 

Total. 

I       

235 

541 

it 

II  .. 

623 

1  "7" 

1  7T. 

Ill  .. 

480 

870 

1  *•»<) 

IV  

420 

735 

1.1"..". 

V... 

390 

780 

1,170 

VI    . 

457 

815 

1  ",'J 

VII  

M 

2,000 

VIII  

i  '•:«'• 

L'.IIMI) 

IX  

1,155 

8,000 

x     

1,042 

i  Ml 

:,  HIM) 

XI  

1,167 

1  x.:;; 

XII  

1,077 

l.'.'j.; 

;:.nno 

XIII        

i  nt 

2,711 

•i  in,i) 

XIV  

i  '•-•• 

::  u* 

5000 

XV  

903 

2,118 

::."-l 

Total  1 

n  fifteen  volumes  

12,089 

•j.;.r.n 

;:.  .:,:;:• 

The  National  Berkshire  Record,  an  offshoot  of  the 
American,  has  issued  two  volumes,  containing  pedi 
of  535  boars  and  1050  sows.     In  the  ten  volumes  of  the 
British  Berkshire  Herdbook,  so  far  received,  pedigrees 
have  been  recorded  as  below : 


fionrs. 

,SYnr«. 

TbtoZ 

UW 

384 

540 

II  .. 

143 

•••,; 

440 

Ill  

147 

358 

505 

IV  

129 

335 

404 

v           

139 

300 

439 

VI     

164 

809 

523 

VII  

170 

tS8 

5U8 

VIII  

144 

no 

429 

IX 

138 

322 

•I'  " 

X  

145 

352 

.»•.•; 

Total  in  ten  volumes  

1,475 

:;.ui> 

4,895 

Poland-China  breeders  have  established  four  separate 
Records,  with  different  rules,  editors  and  management, 
instead  of  cooperating  and  making  one  Record  and  one 
system  of  rules,  as  would  j^em  desirable  for  any  breed. 
The  "Ohio  Poland-China  Record,"  having  headquarters 
at  Dayton,  0.,  and  begun  in  1877,  has  issued  already 
seventeen  volumes,  with  pedigrees  of  64,000  animals. 

One    designated    as    the    "American    Poland-China 


SOME  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


226 


Record,"  and  thus  far  published  in  Iowa,  has  sent  out 
sixteen  volumes  since  1878,  recording  63,000  pedigrees. 

A  third,  known  as  the  "Central  Poland-China  Rec- 
ord," had  its  beginning  in  Indiana  in  1880,  and  its  six- 
teen issues  contain  nearly  27,000  pedigrees. 

The  "North western  Poland-China  Record,"  estab- 
lished in  Kansas  in  1881,  but  since  suspended,  issued 
three  volumes. 

The  fifth  and  latest  established  (1886)  of  these  Poland- 
China  Records  is  named  the  "Standard,"  published  in 
Missouri,  and  its  nine  volumes  are  made  up  of  45,000 
pedigrees. 

Two  Records  for  Chester  "Whites  have  been  established 
— the  "Standard"  and  the  "American."  The  record- 
ing done  in  the  "Standard's"  five  volumes  is  as  follows  : 


Boars. 

Sows. 

Total. 

Volume 

I  
II  

2,642 
245 

2,812 
275 

5,454 
520 

ii 

Ill  

152 

260 

412 

M 

IV  

224 

400 

624 

tt 

V  

218 

412 

630 

Total  in 

five  volumes  

3,481 

4,159 

7,640 

The  "American" — originally  founded  as  a  "Record 
of  Todd's  Improved  Chester  Whites,"  which  were  a  com- 
bination of  the  Pennsylvania  Chester  Whites  with  other 
white  hogs  in  Ohio,  of  previously  mixed  or  miscellane- 
ous breeding,  since  1865-67 — has  also  published  five  vol- 
umes, made  up  as  here  shown  : 


Boars. 

Sows. 

Total. 

Volume 
it 

I  
II  

190 
191 

389 
363 

579 
554 

t« 

Ill    

310 

571 

881 

M 

IV  

265 

408 

673 

tt 

V  

496 

834 

1,330 

Total  in 

five  volumes  

1,452 

2,565 

4,017 

, 

The  red,  or  rather  sandy,  hogs  common  in  America, 
are  by  their  breeders  now  designated  as  Duroc-Jerseys, 
and  two  different  Records  of  their  pedigrees  are  now 
published. 


226 


SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 


The  American  Duroc- Jersey  Swine  Breeders'  Associa- 
tion has  issued  five  volumes  of  its  pedigree  records,  \\ith 
numbers  as  below : 


Boars. 

8OW9. 

'/'"f-l/. 

Volume 

H 
ti 
M 
tt 

I       

300 
400 
430 
MB 
475 

1,000 

1,000 
1,000 
1,000 

1.IHNI 

1,300 
1.4-  MI 
L,4M 

1.17.-. 

II  

Ill  

IV  

V... 

Total  in  five  volumes  

MB 

.-,.(.(,(( 

T.IIKS 

The  National  Duroc-Jersey  Association  lias  issued  two 
volumes  of  a  record  containing : 


Boar*. 

Sow! 

T-tni. 

175 

JM 

Si 

II... 

450 

850 

I.::«M. 

Total  in  two  volumes..  . 

»,•_'.-, 

l,:n<i 

1,  •.»•-•:. 

Two  volumes  of  a  Record  for  the  "Victorias,"  origi- 
nating in  Indiana,  have  been  published,  and  a  tli'ml  i.> 
well  towards  completion  at  the  time  this  is  writ! en. 
The  following  shows  the  number  of  pedigrees  in  each  of 
the  two  volumes : 


/,.••//•-. 

Sows. 

Total. 

Y  i>]  u  n  !>•            I         .             

34 

69 

103 

II  

Ml 

566 

926 

Total  in  two  volumes  

394 

SB 

pS 

An  association  of  Suffolk  breeders  is  expecting  to  issue 
the  first  volume  of  a  Record  containing  about  350 
pedigrees. 

The  American  Essex  Association  has  two  volumes 
with  this  showing : 


BfHirg. 

SotPt. 

Total. 

Volume 
ii 

if::::::::::::::::::::::::- 

118 
150 

233 
257 

351 
407 

Total  in 

two  volumes  

268 

490 

758 

SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  227 

Of  the  popularity  of  these  various  Records,  no  better 
evidence  is  needed  than  the  fact  that  they  are  well  sus- 
tained, and  financially  prosperous.  The  prices  of  the 
volumes  range  from  $2.00  to  $5.00  each,  and  we  believe 
the  fee  for  recording  in  any  of  them  is  ordinarily  $1.00 
for  each  pedigree,  except  that  some  of  the  Record  Asso- 
ciations make  a  special  rate  of  one-half  to  their  share- 
holders. 

STANDARDS   OF    EXCELLENCE    AND    SCALE   OF   POINTS. 

Associations  of  those  representing  or  interested  in  each 
of  the  improved  breeds  of  swine  have  formulated  a  stand- 
ard of  excellence  or  scale  of  points  for  their  favorites,  with 
about  twenty  divisions,  aggregating  one  hundred  in  an 
animal  estimated  as  perfect  in  all  its  points,  and  it  is  by 
these  standards  that  they  desire  their  swine  judged  at 
exhibitions. 

Below  is  the  standard  adopted  for  Berkshires  by  the 
American  Berkshire  Association,  the  figures  representing 
the  comparative  value  of  each  point  when  perfect: 

COLOR— Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail,  and  an  occasional 

splash  on  the  arm - ---    4 

FACE  AND  SNOUT— Short;  the  former  fine  and  well  dished,  and  broad 

between  the  eyes - --    7 

EYE— Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray 2 

EAR— Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  forward  with 

advancing  age  ;  medium  size ;  thin  and  soft 

JOWL — Full  and  heavy,  running  well  back  on  neck 4 

NECK — Short  and  broad  on  top 4 

HAIR— Fine  and  soft ;  medium  thickness --         3 

SKIN— Smooth  and  pliable. - 4 

SHOULDER— Thick    and    even,  broad   on    top,  and    deep   through 

chest 7 

BACK— Broad,  short  and  straight;  ribs  well  sprung,  coupling  close  up 

to  hips 

SIDE— Deep  and  well  let  down  ;  straight  on  bottom  lines 6 

FLANK— Well  back,  and  low  down  on  leg,  making  neaily  a  straight 

line  with  lower  part  of  side -    5 

LOIN— Full  and  wide---  9 


228  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

HAM — Deep  and  thick,  exteading  well  up  on  back,  and  holding 

thickness  well  down  to  IIOCK 10 

TAIL— Well  set  up  on  back ;  tapering  and  not  coarse 2 

L.EGS— Short,  straight  and  strong;  set  wide  apart,  with  hoofs  erect, 

and  capable  of  holding  good  weight 5 

SYMMETRY — Well  proportioned  throughout,  depending  largely  on 

condition 6 

CONDITION — In  a  good,  healthy,  growing  state ;  not  overfed 5 

STYLE— Attractive,  spirited,  indicative  of  thorough  breeding  and 

constitutional  vigor 5 

TOTAL 100 

The  following  was  recommended  by  the  National  and 
has  been  adopted  by  the  various  other  Poland-China 
Associations  for  that  breed  : 

COLOR— Dark  spotted  or  black 3 

HEAD— Small,  broad,  face  slightly  dished 5 

EARS— Fine  and  drooping ., 2 

JOWL— Neat  and  full 2 

NECK— Short,  full,  slightly  arched 8 

BRISKET— Full 3 

SHOULDER— Broad  anddeep 6 

GIRTU  AROUND  HEART...       10 

BACK— Straight  and  broad 7 

SIDES— Deep  and  full 6 

RIBS— Well  sprung 7 

LOIN — Broad  and  strong 7 

BELLY— Wide  and  straight 4 

FLANK— Well  let  down 3 

HAM— Broad,  full,  and  deep 10 

TAIL— Tapering,  and  not  coarse 2 

LIMBS— Strong,  straight,  and  tapering 7 

COAT— Thick  and  soft 3 

ACTION — Prompt,  easy  and  graceful 5 

SYMMETRY— Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other..  5 

TOTAL 100 

The  Chester  White  Association  (Todd's)  uses  the  fol- 
lowing : 

HEAD— Small,  broad,  slightly  dished 7 

EAR— Thin,  fine,  drooping 2 

JOWL— Neat  and  full ...  .4 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  229 

NECK — Short,  full,  well  arched-. . 3 

BRISKET — Full  and  deep 3 

SHOULDEK— Broad  and  deep 6 

GlRTII  AROUND  HEART 9 

BACK— Straight  and  broad 6 

SIDES— De.-p  and  full 7 

RIBS — Well  sprung 6 

LOIN— Broad  and  strong 7 

BELLY— Wide  and  straight 5 

FLANK— Well  let  down 3 

HAM— Broad,  full,  and  deep 10 

LIMBS— Strong,  straight,  and  neat. 6 

TAIL — Tapering,  and  not  coarse 2 

COAT— Fine  and  thick... -  3 

CoLOR-White 3 

SYMMETRY 8 

TOTAL.. 100 

The  association  of  breeders  of  red  swine,  which  they 
have  officially  designated  and  now  record  as  Duroc-Jer- 
seys,  has  adopted  the  following  scale  : 

COLOR— Cherry  red  without  other  admixture 5 

HEAD — Nose  fine  and  short ;  face  slightly  •dished,  wide  be- 
tween eyes - - 10 

EARS— Medium  size;  not  erect  nor  too  drooping. 5 

CHEEKS — Large,  full  and  well  rounded 5 

NECK— Short ;  evenly  deep  from  poll  to  shoulders. 5 

SHOULDERS— Broad,  smooth  and  nearly  level  on  top. 5 

CHEST — Deep;  filled  level  behind  shoulders. 10 

BACK— Broad;  straight  or  slightly  arching,   carrying  even 

width  to  hips 10 

SIDES— Deep ;  medium  length  level  between  shoulders  and 

hips 10 

BELLY— Straight  underline  ;  not  paunchy 5 

HAMS— Large,  full,  well  rounded ;  extending  well  to  hock 

joint 10 

LEGS— Medium  bone  ;  short,  straight,  well  up  on  toes 5 

TAIL — Set  medium  high  ;  nicely  tapering  from  base 5 

HAIR— Fine,  soft,  straight;  moderately  thick.. 5 

ACTION — Vigorous,  animated,  sprightly 5 

TOTAL 100 

Viewing  the  accompanying  diagram  will  suggest  the 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


points  and  method  of  applying  the  standard,  approxi- 
mately, to  swine  of  almost  any  breed  : 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATIONS.  231 


COST    OF     PIG    AND    PORK. 

In  recent  issues  of  the  Breeder's  Gazette  three  differ- 
ent swine-raisers  presented  statements,  each  from  his  own 
experience,  intended  to  show  the  cost  of  young  pigs,  and 
also  their  cost  when  matured  to  marketable  porkers. 
The  first  one,  Mr.  A.  G.,  makes  his  figures  like  this  : 

"Ten  sows,  four  months  old,  cost $100 

Interest  on  the  investment,  IQper  cent 10 

Keep  of  same  one  year,  25  bushels  of  corn  each  at  30c 75 

Keep,  interest  on  cost  and  shrinkage  on  boar 10 

Extra  feed  for  pigs  up  to  two  months  old 15 

Loss  on  sows,  20  per  cent 20 

Cost  of  pens,  $50— interest  and  repairs,  20  per  cent 10 

Total $240 

" Allowing  fifty  pigs  from  the  ten  sows,  and  a  loss  of 
thirty  per  cent  up  to  two  months  old,  and  we  have 
thirty-five  pigs,  costing  $140,  or  $4  each.  Allowing  a 
pig  at  two  months  to  weigh  thirty  pounds,  and  nine 
pounds  of  pork  to  a  bushel  of  corn,  we  will  feed  him 
thirty  bushels  of  corn  to  make  him  weigh  300  pounds. 

"Then  we  have  cost  of  pig $4 

Thirty  bushels  of  corn  at  30  cents 9 

Total $13 

"  If  we  add  twenty  per  cent  to  this  to  cover  the  items 
of  labor,  taxes,  interest  and  risk  after  two  months  old, 
we  have  the  cost  of  the  300-pound  hog  when  fit  for 
market,  $15.60,  or  five  and  a  quarter  cents  a  pound, 
nearly. 

"  From  above  calculations  pork  will  cost  as  follows, 
nearly: 

"  Corn  at  15  cents,  pork  will  cost -3   cents  per  Ib. 

Corn  at  20  cents,  pork  will  cost. 31    " 

Com  at  25  cents,  pork  will  cost 41    ' 

Corn  at  30  cents,  pork  will  cost -5i    " 

Corn  at  35  cents,  pork  will  cost 6      " 


232  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Swine-raiser  number  two  responds  in  this  way: 
"  Fortunately,  ten  sows,  the  number  Mr.  A.  G.  has 
given  in  his  estimate,  is  the  exact  number  T  kept  for 
several  years;  but  I  succeeded  in  raising  to  maturity  just 
double  his  number  of  pigs  to  each  litter.  I  usually 
raise  two  litters  each  year,  one  to  come  in  February  and 
the  other  in  July.  My  February  pigs  I  fatten  the  fol- 
lowing autumn,  and  those  that  come  in  July  are  kept 
through  the  winter  and  fed  for  market  the  next  summer 
and  fall.  I  think  his  estimate  for  the  cost  of  sows — $10 
at  four  months  old — is  pretty  steep  for  three  cent  pork. 
I  can  always  buy  sows  at  that  age,  suitable  for  raising 
pigs,  for  less  than  half  that  amount  on  a  basis  of  three 
cent  pork,  and  can  raise  them  cheaper  than  I  can  buy. 
For  the  sake  of  comparison  I  will  give  the  items  of  ex- 
pense incurred  in  raising  the  little  pig: 

"Ten  sow  pigs,  four  months  old $50.00 

Interest  on  the  investment 400 

Keep  of  sows  9  months,  15  bushels  corn  each,  30c 40.50 

To  pasturing  on  grass  three  months 7.50 

Interest  on  cost  and  keep  of  boar 8.00 

Extra  keep  of  pigs  to  three  months  old 80.00 

Total $140.00 

"  Allowing  seventy  pigs  to  ten  sows  we  have  the  cost 
of  pigs  1140,  at  $2  apiece  at  three  months  old.  Itemized 
the  account  will  stand  thus  : 

4 *  Cost  of  pig  at  three  months $2.00 

Keep  for  six  months,  seven  bushels  corn,  at  30c 2.10 

Two  month's  run  on  clover 50 

Fifteen  bushels  corn  to  prepare  for  market 4.50 

Total $9.10 

"Thus  it  will  be  seen  we  have  the  pig  ready  for 
market  at  fourteen  months  old,  and  he  will  weigh  300 
pounds — a  cost  of  a  fraction  over  three  cents  per  pound 


SOME    GENERAL    OBSERVATION'S.  233 

for  pork.  I  have  made  no  allowance  for  the  loss  of  pigs; 
but  I  have  only  counted  one  litter  to  each  sow  in  a  year, 
and  given  the  other  litter,  which  will  more  than  make  up 
for  all  losses  of  pigs  and  sows,  and  interest  on  cost  of 
pens  ;  although  I  have  no  extra  expense  for  pens,  as  my 
hogs  have  access  to  the  fields  the  year  around  with  other 
stock.  I  regard  the  manure  from  the  hogs  that  have  the 
run  of  the  pastures  throughout  the  year  as  more  than 
equivalent  to  any  pickings  that  they  may  get  while  being 
fed  corn." 

Respondent  number  three  presents  the  results  of  his 
experience  as  follows  : 

"  My  experience  is  that  I  can  buy  ten  sows,  eight 
months  old,  at  $10  each,  and  four  months  later  have  ten 
litters  averaging  seven  pigs,  or  seventy  pigs  in  all.  Al- 
lowing a  loss  of  thirty  per  cent  up  to  two  months  old,  at 
which  age  I  wean  them,  I  have  forty-nine  pigs  to  fatten. 
Now  how  much  have  these  pigs  cost  me  ?  I  figure  it 
this  way: 

"  Interest  on  the  investment,  at  10  per  cent 10.00 

Keep  of  ten  sows  one  year  60.00 

Keep  and  interest  on  boar 10.00 

Extra  feed  on  young  pigs  up  to  two  months 10.00 

Loss  on  sows.     (This  is  counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that 

they  will  be  in  pig  again.) . 

Interest,  repairs  and  labor 20.00 

Total..  ...$110.00 


"At  these  figures  my  young  pigs  cost  me  almost 
exactly  $2.25  each.  For  the  next  two  months  I  feeci 
these  pigs  a  slop  of  oats,  bran  and  middlings,  costing  : 

"  Feed  for  two  months $30.00 

Labor,  etc... 20.00 

Total..  ..  $50.00 


234  SWIXE    HUSBANDRY. 

"Now  I  have  forty-nine  pigs,  four  months  old,  aver- 
aging seventy-five  pounds,  and  costing  me  about  $3.25 
each.  From  this  time  on  I  feed  them  corn,  twenty-live 
bushels  each,  on  which  they  gain  225  pounds,  and  at 
a  year  old  they  average  300  pounds,  and  at  the  fol- 
lowing cost : 

Cost  per  head  at  four  months $3.25 

Twenty-five  bushels  of  corn  at  20c 5.00 

Labor,  etc.,  per  head 1.63 

Total $9.88 

"  Nine  dollars  and  eighty-eight  cents  is  the  total  cost 
of  my  300-pound  hog.  I  can  sell  him  at  our  local 
market  at  $4.20  (present  prices)  per  100  pounds,  or 
$12.50  net.  I  do  not  feed  my  brood  sows  corn  in  any 
large  quantity,  preferring  a  slop  of  oats,  bran  and  mid- 
dlings and  an  occasional  meal  of  roots.  I  find  this  less 
expensive  than  corn  and  I  believe  less  injurious.  I  pay 
but  twenty  cents  for  corn,  and  save  something  in  not 
feeding  it  to  my  sows.  As  I  have  figured  in  my  esti- 
mate the  interest  and  cost  of  keeping  my  sows  and  boar 
for  one  year,  the  second  litter  will  cost  only  labor  and 
feed  for  the  two  months,  which  amounts  to  $30  for  the 
forty-nine  little  pigs,  or  sixty-one  cents  each.  My  first 
litter  cost  me  $2.25  each  at  two  months  old,  and  this 
will  bring  the  average  cost  of  all  my  little  pigs,  at  two 
months  old,  down  to  $1.43.  To  prove  that  I  am  approx- 
imately correct,  two-months-old  pigs  can  readily  be 
bought  in  our  neighborhood  for  $2  each." 


STOCK   YARDS   RECEIPTS. 

The  table  on  the  next  page  shows  the  annual  and 
total  receipts  of  hogs  at  the  two  greatest  live  stock 
markets  in  the  world — the  Union  Stock  Yards,  at 


SOME  GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


235 


Chicago,  Illinois,  and  the  Kansas  City,  Kansas,  Stock 
Yards,  since  their  establishment : 


Chicago,  111. 

1865,  five  days 17,764 

1866 961,746 

1867 1,696,738 

1868 1,706,782 


Kansas  City,  Kant 


1870 1,693,158 

1871 2,380,083 41,036 

1872 3,252,623 104,639 

1873 4,437,750 221,815 

1874 4,258,379 212,532 

1875 3,912,110 63,350 

1876 4,190,006 153,777 

1877 4,025,970 192,645 

1878 6,339,654 427,777 

1879 6,448,330 588,908 

1880 7,059,355 676,477 

1881 6,474,844 1,014,304 

1882 5,817,504 963,036 

1883 5,640,625 1,379,401 

1884 5,351,967 1,723,586 

1885 6,937,535 2,358,718 

1886 6,718,761 2,264,484 

1887 5,470,852 2,423,262 

1888 4,921 ,712 2,008,984 

1889 5,998,526 2,073,910 

1890 7,663,829 2,865,171 

1891 8,600,80G 2,599,109 

1892 7,714,435 2,397,477 

1893 6,057,278 1,948,373 

1894 7,483,228 2,547,077 

1895 7,885,283 2,457,697 

1896 7,659,472 2,605,575 

Total 160,438,972 36,313,120 

Chicago,  III.  Kansas  City,  Kas. 

Largest,  receipts  in  one  Largest  receipts  in  one 

day,  Feb.  11,  1895 74,551  day,  July  30,  1890 26,408 

Largest  receipts  in  one  Largest  receipts  in  one 
week,  ending  Nov.  20,  week,  ending  July  31, 
1880 300,488  1890 155,044 

Largest  receipts  in  one  Largest  receipts  in  one 
month,  Nov.,  1880 1,111,997  month,  July,  1890 347,469 

Largest  receipts  in  one  Largest  receipts  in  one 
year,  1891...:. 8,600,805  year,  1890 2,865,171 


SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 


WHEN  TO  EXPECT  THE  PIGS. 

The  period  of  a  sow's  gestation  being,  as  a  rule,  six- 
teen weeks,  the  following  table  is  presented  as  showing 
exactly  when  sixteen  weeks  expires  from  any  day  in  the 
year  that  she  may  be  bred: 


1 

c_      ^ 

*     K 

*     £ 

>     = 

^     >   -      / 

*     0 

ty,  CD    y 

O     ** 

<y^       hj 

o   s 

8    "° 
!    2. 

1  « 

1  I 

!  5 

9<it  I 

?    S 

3 

1     | 

1        I 

o       ** 

•?    : 

4  • 

• 

:     :  I    I 

:    ." 

r  1 

1  1 

r  ^ 

1  3 

?   : 

1..28 

..33 

1..20 

1..21 

1..20    1    30 

1..20 

1..30 

1..21 

20 

..-90 

..29 

2.  .23 

..24 

2..  21 

2..  22 

2..  21    2..  21 

2..  21 

2.  .21 

*..• 

..81 

..81 

..23 

a        ,,  . 

3.  .33 

8..  23 

3..  32    3..  32 

3.  .92 

3.  .92 

8.  .28 

H 

24 

4.  .25 

4..33 

4.  .24 

4    33   4.  .23 

4.  .23 

4.  .33 

4.  .94 

•J.'{ 

..•2", 

..25 

5    26 

9ft 

".    "1 

6.  .35 

:.    .'»    :.    •„•» 

:.    -J  i 

5.  84 

5    95 

•JJ 

26 

6  .37 

"S 

.-,  •!-, 

•  i     •->». 

6.  35    6..  35 

6..  35 

f,    ••;, 

•i    -•»; 

m 

27 

7.  .28 

r,..89 

7.  .86 

7.  .97 

7.  .36    7.  .38 

7.  .26!  7.  .96 

7.  .27 

7..36      ..96 

..28 

8..2H 

8.  .30 

8..  27 

8..  88 

8.  .27   8.  .27 

8.  .37 

8.  .87 

8..  88 

8..  87   8..  87 

B..M 

9..  30 

9..  31 

9..  29 

9.  38   9..S8 

9..  98 

9..  88 

'.'  .  .  29 

I..K    -..    -^ 

I..M 

June 

10..29il0..30 

10..  29  10..  99 

10..  29 

in  M 

10..  80  10..  89     Mar. 

10..  31 

10      1 

10..  1 

It.  .30111.  .31 

11..  30  11..  30 

11.  30 

11..  30 

11.  .81  11.  .30  10..  1 

A  pi. 

11..  i! 

11..  2 

July 

Auff. 

12..  31      Oct. 

12..  31 

IMC. 

Jan.  12..  81  11..  3 

11,     1 

12..  8 

12..  812..  "1 

18..   1 

Sept.  12..  1 

Nov.  13  .    1  12.     1     Feb.  13..  3 

12..  2 

13..  4 

13..  4 

13..  2 

13..  213..  1  13..  8 

13..   1 

13..   313..  813..  1  13..  4,18..  8 

14..  5 

14..  5 

14  .  3 

14..  3 

14..  211..  3 

14..  2 

14..    314..  3  14..  314..  5  14.    4 

15..  f. 

15..  615..  4 

15..  4 

15..  315..  4 

15..  3)6..    415..  4  15..  815..  6  15..  5 

16..  7 

16..  7 

16..  5 

16..  5 

16..  4  16..  5 

16      4 

16..    5  16..   S  16  .   4  IK..   7  1fi      ft 

17..  8 

17..  817..  6 

17..  6 

17..  517..  6 

17..  517..   6!l7..  6  17..  517..  8  17..  7 

18..  9 

18..  9.18..  7|18..  7 

18..  618..  7 

18..  618..   718..  7  IS..  618..  918  .  8 

19..  10 

19.  .10  19.:  8:19..   8  19..   7  19..   s 

19..  7 

19..   819..  8  19..  719.   10 

19..  9 

90.  .11 

20..  11 

20..  9 

20..  9 

•JO..  820..  9 

30..  8 

20..  920..  920..  820..  11 

20.  .10 

21  .  .12  21  .  .  12  21  .  .  10  21  .  .10  21  .     9  21  .  .  10 

21..  921.  .1021.  .10  21..  991..12-J1..11 

92..  131-22..  13  22..  11 

22.  11 

22..  10  2-2  .11 

22.  .10  22.  .11  22.  .11  22.  .10  22..  13  22.  12 

33.  .14  88..  14  33..  12  23..  12  23..  1193..  12 

23..  11 

83    13  23..  12  23..  11  23..  14  23..  13 

24..  15  24..  15 

24..  13 

24..  13 

24..  12  24..  13 

24..  12 

24.  .13  21  .13  24.  .12  24.  .15  24.  .14 

95..  16 

25.  .  16  25.  .  14  25.  .  14  25.  .13  25.   14 

25.   18 

25..  14  35..  14  25  .13  25..  16  25.  .15 

26.  .17 

26    17 

26..  15 

26.   15 

2»»     14  St..  15 

26.  .14 

86  .15  26.  .15  26..  14  26..  17  '26  .16 

27..  18 

27.  .18  27.  .16)27.  .16  27.  .15  27.  .16  27.  .15127.  .16  27..  16  27..  15  27.  .18  27.  .17 

28.  .19 

28..  19 

28.  .17 

28..  17 

28..  16  28..  17 

28..  l»i 

28.  .17  38.  .17  28..  1688..  19  8*..  18 

29.  .20 

29.  .2'»  29.  .  18.89.  .  18  29.  .  17  29.  .  18  29.  .  17 

29.  .18  29.  .18  29..  17  29..  2029..  19 

30..  21 

30.  .19 

30..  19 

30  .18  30..  19 

30    18 

30.  .19  30  .19  30..  18  30..  21  30  .20 

31.  .32 

31.  .20 

131..  19, 

31.  .1981.  .20             131.  .19             I31..21 

DISEASES   OF   SWINE. 


PRACTICAL    INFORMATION    AS    TO 
THEIR  CAUSES,  SYMPTOMS,  PRE- 
VENTION, AND  CURE. 


DISEASES    OF    SWINE.  239 


CHAPTER    XXIII. 

DISEASES  OF  SWINE  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

We  desire  to  preface  this  portion  of  our  volume  by  say- 
ing that  we  are  not  a  hog  doctor,  and  have  but  little  faith 
in  sick  hogs,  or  in  giving  them  medicines. 

A  sick  hog  is,  as  a  rule,  very  poor  property,  and  he  who 
permits  this  class  of  stock  to  become  diseased  through 
negligence  or  mistreatment,  under  the  impression  that 
"  anybody  knows  enough  to  doctor  a  hog,"  is  boldly  court- 
ing disaster. 

The  hog  has  an  appetite  beyond  his  powers  of  diges- 
tion ;  if  he  is  allowed  to  gorge  himself  on  unsuitable 
foods,  is  made  to  live  in  filth  and  mire,  from  first  to  last, 
and  is  also  exposed  to  burning  sun  and  biting  frosts,  it 
can  be  but  small  wonder  if  he  becomes  the  prey  of  disease. 

Prevention,  by  rational,  decent  treatment,  should  be 
the  watch-word  ;  but,  if  an  animal  appears  ailing,  note 
carefully  all  the  symptoms. 

Physicians  say  that  the  internal  organs  of  a  hog  are 
located  much  as  are  those  of  a  man,  and  that  in  a  major- 
ity of  cases  it  will  be  safe  to  treat  a  sick  hog,  so  far  as 
practicable,  in  the  same  manner  as  a  sick  man  should  be 
treated.  Medicines  ought  never  to  be  given  without  well 
defined  ideas  as  to  what  they  are  expected  to  accomplish 
— remembering  that  "the  catalogue  of  medicine  fur- 
nishes few,  if  any  specifics,  that  is,  medicines  that  will 
always  cure  certain  diseases." 

There  are,  however,  a  great  number  of  medicines  that 
appear  to  be  specifics  for  certain  symptoms. 

The  only  really  successful  way  of  administering  medi- 
cine to  hogs  is,  to  mix  it  in  their  feed  or  drink,  as  they 


240  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

are  so  obstinate  and  unmanageable  that  drenching  is  usu- 
ally unsatisfactory  and  always  dangerous.  If  too  far  gon& 
to  eat  or  drink  a  little,  the  case  may  be  considered  quite 
hopeless.  They  should  be  made  as  comfortable  as  pos- 
sible, and  if  they  will  eat,  give  them  food  that  is  light, 
and  easy  to  digest,  not  too  much  strong  medicine,  and 
trust  to  good  care,  to  time,  and  to  nature,  to  effect  a  cure. 
The  veteran  Elmer  Baldwin  says  : 

"  In  winter,  I  would  separate  the  sick  from  the  herd ;  give  them 
*  good  warm  sty  and  access  to  water,  and  in  summer  would  turn 
them  where  they  would  have  water  for  both  drinking  un<l  l»:ithii)ir, 
with  a  dense  cool  shade,  and  where  they  would  not  be  disturbed, 
withhold  their  feed,  and  let  them  take  their  chances.  Such  a  course 
I  have  ever  found  more  successful  than  any  medicicc. 

"Prevention  is  better  than  cure;  for  a  herd  of  swine  prop,  rly 
fed  and  cared  for  will  seldom  be  sick,  if  they  are  native;  tin  ir 
own  vital  power  must  cure  them ;  man  cannot 

44  If  they  have  been  improperly  fed,  until  disease  has  been  devel- 
oped, the  best  remedy  is  to  change  the  diet  to  a  proper  one. 

44  If  they  have  been  kept  in  a  close  pen,  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
summer,  turn  them  into  a  fresh  pasture  where  they  can  have  water, 
exercise,  and  shade. 

44  If  they  have  been  kept  in  a  dirty,  muddy  pen  until  they  have 
scurf  and  mange,  clean  the  skin,  arid  give  them  a  clean,  comfort 
able  pen  to  live  in.  But,  better  still,  give  those  better  conditions 
before  the  difficulty  occurs.  Care  for  them  in  advance,  both  as  a 
matter  of  duty  and  profit.  And  as  in  morals,  the  path  of  duty  is 
the  path  of  happiness  and  safety,  so  in  the  treatment  of  our  domes- 
tic animals,  generous,  kind,  and  humane  treatment  brings  the  most 
money." 

Nothing  is  more  natural  than  that  those  who  have  capi- 
tal invested  in  swine  should,  if  disease  appears,  desire  to 
make  some  effort  to  arrest  its  progress.  Appreciating  the 
importance  of  this,  we  present  here  recipes  that  have 
been  tried,  recommended,  and  endorsed  by  practical  men, 
who  have  found  them  valuable  ;  and  we  believe  them  to 
be  more  nearly  adapted  to  the  wants  of  swine-breeders 
than  any  collection  heretofore  made. 

They  are  not  recommended  as  infallible,  and  we  would 


DISEASES    OF    SWINE.  241 

again  impress  it  upon  our  readers  and  fellow-breeders, 
that  the  treatment  of  diseased  swine  is  very  uncertain  in 
its  results,  for  when  it  is  so  often  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  precise  character  or  location  of  the  ailment,  it  is  in- 
deed difficult  to  prescribe  and  administer  efficacious  reme- 
dies. Hence  the  "  ounce  of  prevention  "  is  all-important. 
The  information  given  of  the  disease  or  diseases  known 
as  Hog  Cholera,  is  unquestionably  the  best  and  most 
thorough  that  the  ablest  scientific  authorities  in  the 
country  have  as  yet  arrived  at. 

ANTHRAX*   DISEASES    IN    SWINE. 

The  obscure  diseases  in  swine  generally — but  quite  im- 
properly— designated  by  farmers  as  "Hog  Cholera,"  have 
created  such  fearful  ravages  in  the  principal  hog-raising 
districts  as  to  prove  the  main  obstacle  to  profitable  pork 
production. 

There  has  been  witnessed  annually,  for  a  generation 
past,  the  loss,  by  epidemic  diseases,  of  millions  of  dollars 
worth  of  swine  in  this  country,  at  a  time  of  year  when 
they  were  of  maximum  value. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  a  scourge  so  prevalent,  carry- 
ing disaster  and  financial  ruin  to  such  numbers  of  our 
people,  has  not  been  made  the  subject  of  thorough  scien- 
tific investigation  by  a  commission,  composed  of  men 
eminent  for  their  scientific  and  practical  knowledge. 

We  believe  a  portion  of  the  appropriation  to  our  Na- 
tional Bureau  of  Agriculture  could,  and  should,  have 
been  used,  years  ago,  to  assist  in  researches  to  wrest  from 
nature  the  secret  causes  of  the  wide-spread  destruction, 
which,  in  such  numerous  instances,  makes  hog-raising, 
as  a  business,  so  precarious. 

If  the  active  pursuit  of  knowledge  so  valuable  as  this 
does  not  cojie  within  the  province  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  of  State  Agricultural  Boards  and  Societies, 

*  Anthrax  ia  the  Greek  word  for  carbuncle,  or  virulent  ulcei: 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

and  the  richly  endowed  and  richly  officered  Agricultural 
Colleges,  organized  ostensibly  in  the  interests  of  tlu  }. in- 
ducing classes,  by  whom  they  are  largely  maintained,  \\c 
have  failed  to  comprehend  their  mission,  or  importance. 
While  such  ruinous  devastation  is  abroad  in  the  land,  and 
millions  of  dollars  worth  of  swine  sometimes  die  in  a  -in- 
gle month  from  diseases  scarcely  understood  at  all,  it  is 
small  comfort  to  the  tax-ridden  Western  farmers  to  ivad, 
in  its  voluminous  reports,  that  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture is  engaged  in  investigating  the  Cranben  v-mt  in 
New  Jersey,  or  the  Orange-blight  in  Florida,  or  that  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  is  making  (.-la  bom  to 
experiments  to  test  the  lifting  powers  of  a  Squaw,  which 
has,  at  considerable  expense,  been  properly  harnessed  for 
that  purpose. 

No  investigation  that  does  not  extend  through  several 
States,  and  include  thousands  of  cases,  as  found  under 
varying  and  widely  different  circumstances,  and  is  not 
made  with  a  liberal  and  faithfully  continued  expenditure 
of  time,  labor,  and  some  money,  can  be  satisfactory.  The 
necessary  expense  precludes  private  investigations  from 
being  sufficiently  extended,  and  if  properly  conducted, 
the  results  obtained  would  be  of  such  general  interest 
that  the  General  Government  should  lead  in  the  under- 
taking and  bear  the  expense.  Managing  our  own  hogs, 
on  the  theory  that  the  "ounce  of  prevention"  was  of 
paramount  importance,  we  have  never  lost  even  a  single 
animal  by  any  disease  we  could  call  cholera,  and  as  it 
comprehends  conditions  and  causes  regarding  which  the 
most  learned  scientists  are  as  yet  groping  in  comparative 
darkness,  we  shall  not  weary  the  reader  with  mere  sur- 
mises of  our  own. 

Fortunately  some  two  or  three  of  the  leading  veterina- 
rians in  the  country  have  devoted  much  attention  to  it, 
and  while  none  of  them  claim  to  have  at  all  solved  the 
mystery  in  which  epidemic  diseases  are  enshrouded,  we 


DISEASES    OF    SWINE.  243 

are  able  to  present,  in  this  and  the  succeeding  chapters, 
the  latest  conclusions  to  which  their  labors  have  brought 
them. 

From  our  standpoint,  we  consider  "hog  cholera"  as 
caused  by  a  putrid  poison  in  the  blood,  induced  by  unwhole 
some  foods,  drink,  and  surroundings  productive  of  disease, 
essentially  a  contagious  fever,  of  which  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  diarrhoea,  vomiting,  abscesses,  and  similar  feat- 
ures, are  simply  complications.  Law,  and  others,  do  not 
hesitate  to  pronounce  it  as  having  been  known  in  the  Old 
World,  as  well  as  this  country,  and  all  authorities  encoun- 
tered by  us  agree  that  the  unwholesome  conditions  of  life 
contribute  largely  to  its  diffusion,  if  not  its  development 
anew. 

Every  farmer  should  realize  the  necessity  of  prevention, 
and  grasp  the  fact  that  the  great  "cure-all"  will  never 
be  found,  and  that  trusting  to  any  remedies,  specifics,  or 
patent  nostrums,  is  more  than  likely  to  result  in  a  disas- 
trous failure,  to  avert  which  too  much  care  cannot  be 
taken  in  securing  the  best  sanitary  conditions  of  life  for 
this  class  of  domestic  animals. 

Dr.  H.  J.  Detmers,  a  distinguished  veterinarian,  who 
has  devoted  much  research  to  diseases  peculiar  to  swine 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  prepared  for  and  published  in 
the  Rural  World,  (St.  Louis,  April,  1876,)  an  extended 
article  on  Anthrax  Diseases  in  Swine,  of  which  the 
following  is  a  synopsis  : 

"  Although  I  have  had  considerable  experience,  not  only  when 
practising  as  veterinary  surgeon  in  Europe,  but  also  during  the 
seven  years  which  I  have  resided  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  I  write 
with  some  reluctance,  because  I  know  that  a  good  deal  of  what  I 
shall  have  to  say  will  conflict  with  some  long-cherished  notions  and 
prejudices  of  a  great  many  readers.  In  the  first  place,  I  wish  to 
banish  the  name  of 

'HOG   CHOLERA/ 

which  is  ill-chosen,  entirely  without  meaning,  and  leads  to  confu- 
sion, as  it  naturally  conveys  the  impression  that  the  disease,  or  dis- 


244  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

eases  so  named, are  similar  to,  or  identical  with  the  A-i  iiie  cholera, 
or  cholera  of  men,  which  is  not  the  case.  In  fact,  what  our  fanners 
and  swine-breeders  are  used  to  call  'hog  cholera,'  is  not  a  «.inir!e 
or  separate  disease,  but  rather  a  group  of  several  kindred  diseases, 
similar  to  each  other  in  regard  to  causes,  morbid  process,  conta- 
giousness, and  final  termination,  but  differing  very  much  as  to  symp- 
toms, seat  of  morbid  process,  course,  and  duration,  lleim-.  t Im- 
proper name, 

ANTHRAX   DISEASES, 

which  is  understood  everywhere,  is  much  preferable  to  the  mis- 
nomer'hog  cholera.' 

"  All  anthrax  diseases — and  those  of  swine  not  ezcepted — make 
their  appearance  usually  as  enzootic  diseases.  They  spn •  ul  over 
large  districts,  and  attack  a  large  number  of  animals  of  the  same 
kind,  and  in  some  cases  of  different  kinds,  at  once,  or  in  quick  suc- 
cession. Only  in  comparatively  rare  cases,  one  or  the  other  form 
of  anthrax  presents  itself  as  a  sporadic  disease — that  is,  attacks 
only  a  few  animals,  or  remains  limited  to  a  farm,  a  pasture,  <»  i 
stable,  or  a  yard.  This,  however,  is  but  natural :  in  the  first  place, 
the  presence  of  the  pernicious  agencies  or  influences  which  consti- 
tute the  causes  is  seldom  limited  to  a  farm,  a  pasture,  a  stable,  or  a 
yard,  but  extends  usually  over  whole  districts;  and  secondly,  all 
anthrax  diseases  develop  a  more  or  less  intense  contagion,  able  to 
communicate  the  morbid  process  to  other  healthy  animals,  which 
have  not  been  exposed  to  the  causes,  and  in  severe  cases  even  to 
men.  The  morbid  process  in  all  anthrax  diseases  consists  in  a 
peculiar  decomposition  of  the  blood  and  of  the  animal  tissues;  con- 
sequently, everything  that  is  able  to  introduce  or  to  promote  such 
a  decomposition  must  be  considered  as  a  mediate  cause. 

"  CAUSES. 

"  The  causes  of  the  anthrax  diseases  of  swine  are  essentially  the 
same  as  those  of  the  anthrax  diseases  of  other  domesticated  ani- 
mals. The  same  proceed,  to  a  great  extent,  from  certain  peculiari- 
ties of  the  soil  and  of  the  weather,  and  have  their  source  also — par- 
tially at  least — in  the  mode  and  manner  in  which  the  animals  arc 
kept  It  is  possible,  according  to  the  scientific  investigations  and 
experiments  which  have  been  carried  on  with  great  zeal  during  the 
last  decade,  that  various  cryptogamic  parasites,  the  bacteril,  v'bri- 
ones,  and  others,  found  in  the  blood  and  in  other  fluids  of  anthrax 
patients,  act  either  directly  or  indirectly  like  a  ferment  upon  the 
blood,  effect  a  decomposition  of  that  fluid,  act  in  that  way  as  a 


DISEASES    OF   SWINE.  245 

causal  agency,  or  a  cause,  of  the  morbid  process  and  Us  usually 
fatal  termination. 

"The  experience  of  our  present  age,  as  well  as  the  earliest 
observations  on  record,  show  that  anthrax  diseases  are  apt  to  occur 
wherever  large  quantities  of  stagnant  water,  surcharged  with  de- 
composing vegetable  substances,  are  evaporating.  Hence,  anthrax 
diseases  may  be  expected  on  naturally  wet  or  low  land,  in  a  dry 
season,  and  on  naturally  high  and  dry  land,  provided  the  soil  is 
rich  in  humus,  in  very  wet  seasons.  The  various  forms  of  anthrax, 
therefore,  make  their  appearance  especially  as  epizootic,  or  rather 
cnzoocic,  diseases,  in  all  localities  or  districts  in  which  the  top  soil 
is  rich  in  humus  and  decomposing  vegetable  matter,  and  the  sub- 
soil impervious  to  water,  at  the  end  of  a  wet  season,  or  after  an 
inundation  ;  and  in  localities  or  districts  in  which  swamps,  sloughs, 
and  pools  of  stagnant  water  are  numerous  and  extensive  during  a 
hot  and  dry  season,  particularly  if  the  animals  are  compelled  to 
drink  foul  or  stagnant  water  containing  a  considerable  quantity  of 
decomposing  vegetable  substances.  The  water  of  ponds  in  which 
flax  lias  been  rotted,  must  be  regarded  as  extremely  dangerous,  for 
this  reason. 

"  Pastures  and  stubble  fields,  rich  in  sulphates,  or  manured  with, 
mineral  fertilizers,  which  effect  a  more  rapid  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  substances,  are  also  more  dangerous  than  others. 

"The  weather,  too,  is  not  altogether  without  influence.  Weather 
that  is  too  hot  and  too  sultry  for  the  season  of  the  year,  or  that  is 
very  changeable,  (for  instance,  very  warm  during  the  day,  and  cold 
at  night),  seems  to  promote  the  outbreak  of  anthrax  diseases.  The 
climate,  or  the  average  temperature  of  a  country,  is  without  any 
consequence,  for  anthrax  makes  its  appearance  as  well  in  the  polar 
regions  as  in  the  temperate  and  in  the  torrid  zones. 

"  As  to  the  keeping  of  the  animals,  it  has  been  observed  that  sties 
or  pens,  full  of  dung  and  rotting  vegetable  substances — clover, 
weeds,  etc. — especially  if  the  latter  are  wet  and  exposed  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun,  have  a  decidedly  bad  influence,  and  are  able  to  act  as 
a  cause.  Further,  certain  kinds  of  food,  that  contain  an  abund- 
ance of  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  are  difficult  to  digest,  or  very 
juicy,  and  of  rank  and  rapid  growth,  have  a  great  tendency  to  pro- 
mote the  development  of  anthrax  diseases.  As  such  kinds  of  food 
— though  some  of  them  are  scarcely  ever  fed  to  swine — may  be 
named  :  aftermath  clover,  the  grasses  and  weeds  grown  on  stubble 
fields  in  a  wet  and  warm  season,  green  rye,  and  green  wheat, 
distillers'  mash,  moldy  hay,  spoiled  or  moldy  garden  vegetables, 


24G  SWINK   HUSBANDRY. 

musty  and  moldy  grain,  and  especially  grain  that  contains  a  great 
deal  of  smut.  It  has  been  stated  time  and  again,  that  grasses 
grown  on  places  or  spots  where  animals  diseased  with  anthnx 
lud  died, or  had  been  buried,  are  able  to  produce  anthrax  in  living 
animals.  Whether  this  is  true  or  not,  I  am  unable  to  decide  ;  1 
iiive  the  statement  for  what  it  is  worth.  Still,  it  seems  that  scarcely 
any  one  of  these  more  or  less  injurious  kinds  of  food  is  able  to  pro- 
duce anthrax  by  itself,  but,  if  acting  combined  with  the  influences 
of  evaporating  stagnant  water,  surcharged  with  decomposing  vege- 
table substances,  the  same  may  become  very  pernicious. 

**  A  great  and  dangerous  predisposition  to  anthrax  diseases  is 
originated,  also,  by  a  sudden  increase  of  very  nutritious  food,  caus- 
ing a  rapid  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  animal  from  poor 
to  good,  or  from  middling  good  to  very  good,  by  accelerating  and 
augmenting  rather  excessively  the  organic  change  of  material,  or 
process  of  wasting  and  repairing,  that  is  constantly  going  on  in 
every  living  organism.  If  the  change  of  matter  is  increased  too 
suddenly,  or  to  such  an  extent  that  the  organs  (lymphatics,  kid- 
neys, skin,  intestines,  etc.,)  which  have  the  oilier  of  di>pn-iMLr  Of 
the  waste  material,  and  excreting  the  same,  but  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  only  an  ordinary  quantity  of  water,  cannot  absorb  and 
carry  off  the  extraordinary  amount  that  is  produced,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  rapidly-promoted  change  of  matter — a  quantity  of 
wasted  material,  consisting  of  nitrogenous  (urea,  for  instance,)  and 
carbonaceous  compounds,  will  be  retained,  and  will  accumulate  in 
the  system,  but  especially  in  the  blood,  where  they  are  apt  to 
become  a  source  of  decomposition. 

"The  predisposing  influence  of  a  very  rapid  growth  and  im 
provemcnt  in  condition,  explains  why,  in  every  anthrax  epizooty, 
or  enzooty,  just  the  most  thrifty  and  fastest  improving  animals 
become  the  victims,  and  contract,  almost  invariably,  the  disease  in 
its  most  acute  and  most  malignant  forms;  while  the  poorest  ani- 
nals  in  a  herd  remain  either  exempted,  or  take  the  disease  in  a  less 
acute,  or  comparatively  mild  form.  Age  and  sex  seem  to  be  with- 
out influence. 

"THE  CONTAGION. 

"  A  very  important  source  of  the  spreading  of  the  disease  con- 
stitutes the  contagion.  The  same  is  of  a  fixed,  rather  than  of  a 
volatile  nature,  and  all  parts  of  the  animal  body  (but  especially 
the  blood  and  the  fluid  products  of  the  morbid  process),  must  be 
looked  upon  as  its  bearers.  The  vitality  of  the  contagion,  and  the 
resistance  of  the  same  against  external  influences,  is  very  great ;  it 


DISEASES    OF   SWINB.  247 

is  not  easily  destroyed  by  exposure  to  the  air,  to  warmth,  cold, 
moisture,  etc.  Its  intensity,  however,  is  not  always  the  same,  but 
differs  according  to  the  form  and  malignancy  of  the  disease,  and 
the  genus  of  the  animal ;  for  it  has  been  repeatedly  observed,  that 
contagion  in  neat  cattle,  is  usually  more  effective  than  that  devel- 
oped in  horses,  or  in  hogs.  It  is  destroyed  most  effectually  by 
chemical  agencies  —  for  instance,  by  carbolic  acid,  chloride  of 
lime,  etc. 

"  The  fact  that  carbolic  acid,  a  most  deadly  poison  to  all  parasite 
growth,  (vegetable,  as  well  as  animal,)  destroys  also,  quicker  and 
more  thoroughly  than  anything  else,  the  efficiency  of  the  conta- 
gion developed  in  anthrax,  and  in  other  contagious  diseases,  may 
be  looked  upon  as  a  strong  support  of  the  theory  which  assigns  to 
the  cryptogamic  parasites,  found  in  the  blood  and  in  several  other 
fluids  of  patients  diseased  with  anthrax,  or  with  any  other  conta- 
gious diseases,  a  close  connection  with  the  contagion. 

"The  period  of  incubation  (that  is,  the  time  which  elapses  be- 
tween the  exposure  to  the  influence  of  the  contagion  and  the  out- 
break of  the  disease  resulting  from  it),  is  not  always  the  same, 
but  extends  from  a  few  hours  to  about  two  weeks.  The  form  of 
the  disease  resulting  from  a  contagious  infection,  is  not  always 
identical  with  the  form  of  anthrax  which  produced  the  contagion, 
but  depends  upon  the  seat  of  the  morbid  process ;  and  the  latter 
usually  localizes  itself  in  the  same  parts  of  the  body  which  have 
been  the  principal  recipients  of  the  contagion. 

"  Anthrax  in  swine,  as  well  as  in  all  other  domesticated  animals, 
makes  its  appearance  in  different  forms,  which  maybe  divided  into 
two  groups — one  without  any  localization  of  the  morbid  process, 
and  another  one,  in  which  a  localization  is  taking  place.  The 
forms  belonging  to  the  first  group,  are  characterized  by  their  ex- 
tremely acrte  course,  and  great  malignancy.  The  morbid  process 
affects  the  whole  organism,  and  has  no  time  to  localize  itself,  bcC 
destroys  life  usually  within  a  few  hours,  and  in  some  cases  even 
within  a  few  minutes.  The  forms  of  anthrax  belonging  to  the 
second  group,  are  less  acute  in  their  course ;  they  last  from  several 
hours  to  several  days,  and  the  morbid  process,  too,  is  less  violent, 
and  has  time  to  effect  a  localization  in  one  or  another  part  or  organ 
of  the  animal's  body. 

"  GANGRENOUS    ERYSIPELAS. 

"  Gangrenous,  malignant,  or  contagious  erysipelas — St.  Antho- 
ny's fire,  or  Wild-fire— must  be  considered  as  the  most  frequent  an- 
thrax disease  of  swine.  Its  outbreak  is  usually  preceded  by  some 


248  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

more  or  less  plainly  developed  precursory  symptoms  which,  how- 
ever, often  remain  unobserved.  The  animal,  a  short  time  before 
the  evident  outbreak  of  the  disease,  appears  to  be  dull  and  \v«  ak, 
refuses  it,  food,  has  an  unsteady  gait,  lies  down  a  great  deal,  roots 
in  its  bedding,  and  shows  a  tendency  to  bury  its  head  (or,  if  the 
litter  is  abundant,  its  whole  body),  in  the  straw.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  body  is  changeable,  cold  sliiverings  and  feverish  heat 
alternate  with  each  other  in  quick  succession  ;  pulse  ami  ropi ra- 
tion are  accelerated ;  the  bowels  are  constipated,  or  the  excrements 
that  are  voided  arc  hard  and  dark-colored;  in  som.  cases,  the  pa- 
tients  make  efforts  to  vomit.  In  about  twelve  or  twenty-four 
hours,  the  symptoms  become  more  characteristic.  Red  spots, 
which  soon  become  confluent,  make  their  appearance  on  the  inside 
of  the  legs,  on  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen,  on  the  breast,  and 
neck,  and  soon  present  an  crysipclatous  swelling  of  (at  first)  a 
blood-red  or  crimson,  afterwards  a  purple,  and  finally  (if  the  ter- 
mination is  to  be  fatal)  a  bluish-black  color.  In  some  cases,  small 
pustules,  with  gangrenous,  corrosive  contents,  make  their  app<  ar- 
ance  on  some  parts  of  the  swelled  surface;  the  fever  inrrea-  >  in 
Intensity ;  the  mucous  membranes  present  a  purple,  or  lead-gray 
color;  the  breathing  becomes  very  laborious;  the  temperature  of 
the  body,  at  first  considerably  increased,  is  much  reduced;  the 
hind  quarters  of  the  animal  become  paralyzed,  convulsions  set  in, 
and  the  sick  animal  dies,  sometimes  within  six  or  twelve  hours, 
but  usually  on  the  second  or  third  day  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
disease.  In  those  cases  in  which  the  animal  recovers,  the  red  spots 
either  remain  limited,  or  become  less  confluent ;  the  fever  does  not 
reach  so  high  a  degree  of  intensity,  and  the  other  morbid  condi- 
tions abate,  if  not  before,  on  the  second  or  third  day.  Still,  some 
morbid  changes,  such  as  partial  paralysis  in  the  hind  quarters,  in- 
sufficient appetite  (the  animals  frequently  cannot  be  induced  to  eat 
any  more  than  the  least  amount  necessary  to  keep  them  alive),  de- 
fective digestion,  etc.,  often  remain,  and  the  recovery  is  seldom  a 
perfect  one. 

**  The  treatment  has  to  be  essentially  the  same  as  in  gangrenous 
angina.  At  f  rst  an  effective  emetic,  and  afterwards  calomel,  or 
sulphate  of  soda,  and  if  the  latter  is  chosen,  diluted  acids,  espe- 
cially diluted  carbolic  acid  (one  part  of  the  crystallized  acid  to  two 
parts  of  glycerine,  or  alcohol,  and  one  hundred  parts  of  water),  to 
be  given  with  extreme  care,  with  a  spoon,  and  in  repeated  doses, 
often  have  a  favorable  result,  provided  the  treatment  is  begun 
before  the  morbid  process  has  made  too  much  progress.  Exter- 
nally, subcutaneous  injections  into  the  swelled  parts,  of  diluted 


DISEASES    OF   SWINE.  249 

carbolic  acid  (;3i  or  3  parts  to  100  of  water),  have  also  proved  to  be 
of  some  benefit,  and  may  at  least  counteract,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
septic  process. 

"  MALIGNANT  OB  GANGRENOUS  ANGINA. 

"  Malignant,  or  gangrenous,  angina  is  one  of  the  most  frequent 
forms  of  anthrax,  at  any  rate,  more  frequent  in  swine  than  either 
apoplectic  or  gloss  anthrax.  It  usually  presents  itself  as  an  en- 
zootv,  and  is  therefore  often  complicated  with  other  forms,  espe- 
cially with  malignant  erysipelas,  so-called  St.  Anthony's  fire,  or 
Wild  fire.  The  morbid  process  has  its  principal  seat  in  the  throat, 
in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  larynx  and  of  the  windpipe,  and 
in  adjoining  parts,  but  is,  in  some  cases  rather  concentrated  in,  or 
limited  to,  a  certain  part — the  larynx,  for  instance — and  in  other 
cases  more  diffused.  Consequently,  some  patients  present  more 
outside  swelling,  or  show  greater  distress  and  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing thin  others,  although  the  disease  is  the  same. 

"  The  principal  symptoms,  though  not  all  of  them  are  alike  con- 
spicuous in  every  patient,  consist  in  wheezing  and  laborious  breath- 
ing, hoarse  grunting,  great  heat,  and  dryness  of  the  snout,  swelling 
of  the  tongue,  a  brown-red  color  of  tjie  mucous  membranes  of  the 
mouth,  difficulty  in  swallowing  the  food,  and  attempts  to  vomit. 
In  the  larynx  region,  and  along  the  windpipe,  appears  a  hot,  hard, 
and  painful  swelling,  which  not  seldom  extends  downward  and 
backward  to  the  forelegs,  or  even  to  the  lower  surface  of  the  chest 
and  abdomen.  The  swelled  parts  present,  at  first,  a  saturated  red 
or  crimson,  afterwards,  often,  a  reddish  lead-gray,  and  finally  a 
purple  color,  and  an  oedematous  character.  The  fever  is  usually 
very  high ;  the  sick  animals  breathe  with  increasing  difficulty,  and 
either  lie  down,  or  sit  on  their  haunches,  like  a  clog.  Finally,  the 
difficulty  of  breathing  becomes  so  great,  that  desperate  attempts 
have  to  be  made  to  catch  a  little  air  by  opening  the  mouth,  and 
protruding  the  livid-colored  and  swelled  tongue.  The  mucous 
membrane  of  the  mouth,  at  first  red-brown,  changes  its  color  to 
lead-gray;  the  temperature  of  the  body,  at  first  considerably 
higher  than  in  a  healthy  animal,  decreases  below  the  normal  de- 
gree, and  the  patients  either  die  of  suffocation,  or  in  consequence 
of  the  spreading  gangrene,  within  one  or  two  days.  In  those 
cases  in  which  the  morbid  process  has  concentrated  itself  in  the 
larynx,  the  patients  suffocate  a  great  deal  sooner,  and  die,  some- 
times, within  an  hour  after  the  appearance  of  the  morbid  symp- 
toms. 

"  If  the  disease  does  not  terminate  in  death,  which  is  but  seldom 


250  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

the  case,  unless  the  patients  are  subjected  to  a  rational  treatment 
during  the  very  first  stages  of  the  disi-asr,  tin-  morbid  symptoms 
are  gradually  reduced.  In  such  a  case,  the  respiration  becomes 
freer  and  less  laborious;  the  wheezing  disappears;  tho  dillirulty 
in  swallowing  food  and  water  abates,  and  the  external  s\v« -Hinur 
ceases  to  spread,  and  finally  decreases  gradually  in  size.  Malig- 
nant angina,  as  well  as  other  forms  of  anthrax,  has  either  an  idio- 
pathic  origin,  or  is  the  consequence  of  an  infection  brought  about, 
in  most  cases,  by  eating  meat,  blood,  etc.,  of  animals  that  have 
died  of  anthrax. 

"A  treatment,  to  be  of  any  avail,  must  be  instituted  during  tin 
very  first  stages  of  the  disease.  It  is  best  to  commence  by  iimn- 
a  good  emetic,  consisting  of  two  to  twenty  grains  (according  to 
the  age  and  size  of  the  patient)  of  powdered  White  Hellebore  (  I ".  / ••<- 
trum  album),  or  of  Tartar  Emetic.  The  former,  however,  is  m«uv 
reliable,  and  therefore  to  be  preferred.  Both  medicines  must  be 
given,  either  with  a  little  milk — if  the  patient  will  take  them  vol- 
untarily— or,  mixed  with  a  pinch  of  flour  and  a  little  water,  or  a 
piece  of  boiled  potato,  in  form  of  pills — if  force  is  necessary,  but 
under  no  circumstances  in  the  shape  of  a  drench.  If  the  animal 
should  not  vomit  freely  within  twenty  minutes,  the  dose  has  to  be 
repeate  1.  Afterwards,  the  so-called  antiphlogistic  salts — sulphate 
of  soda,  sulphate  of  potash,  sulphate  of  magnesia,  saltpetre,  or  cal- 
omel, may  be  given  to  some  advantage.  Diluted  acids,  vegetable 
as  well  as  mineral,  but  especially  diluted  carbolic  acid  (1  to  100  of 
water),  and  subcutaneous  injections  of  diluted  carbolic  acid  (2$  or 
3  parts  of  the  acid,  5  parts  of  glycerine,  and  95  parts  of  water),  made 
into  the  swelled  parts  at  various  places,  have  been  used  to  advan 
tage,  and  h-ivc  given,  in  many  cases,  at  least,  much  better  satis- 
faction than  anything  else.  Some  authors  have  advised  to  draw 
setons  or  rowels,  to  fix  the  swelled  parts  with  a  red-hot  iron,  or  to 
apply  cold  water  douches,  but  if  the  nature  of  the  disease  is  taken 
into  consideration,  it  is  difficult  to  see  what  good  such  remedies 
can  do.  Blood-letting,  too,  has  been  recommended,  but  if  resorted 
to,  it  must  be  done  during  the  very  first,  or  incipient,  stage  of  the 
disease,  otherwise  it  will  only  accelerate  the  fatal  termination. 

"As  preventive  remedies,  diluted  acid,  sour  buttermilk,  unripe 
sour  apples,  once  a  week  a  dose  of  sulphate  of  soda,  and  especially, 
now  and  then,  a  little  carbolic  acicl  in  the  water  for  drinking,  have 
proved  of  some  value. 

"ANTHRAX  CARBUNCLE,  OR  WHITE  BRISTLE. 

"  Real  anthrax  carbuncle  is  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence  in 
hogs.  Its  outbreak  is  always  attended  with  very  severe  fever,  and 


DISEASES    OP   SWINE.  25l 

the  carbunculous  swelling  usually  makes  its  appearance  on  the 
neck,  in  close  proximity  to  the  larynx,  and  is  extremely  painful. 
The  bristles,  or  hair,  on  such  a  carbuncle,  become  bleached,  hard, 
and  brittle,  and  stand  on  end,  therefore  the  name  "  white  bristle." 
Finally,  great  difficulty  of  breathing,  groaning,  gnashing  and  grat- 
ing of  the  teeth,  and  convulsions,  constitute  the  last  symptoms 
and  the  precursors  of  death,  which  ensues  usually  within  a  few 
days. 

"  The  local  treatment  consists  in  destroying,  or  cauterizing,  the 
carbuncles  as  soon  as  possible,  by  means  of  a  red-hot  iron,  or  with 
a  concentrated  acid.  The  general  treatment  has  to  be  the  same 
as  in  malignant  angina. 

"APOPLECTIC   ANTHRAX. 

"  The  apoplectic  form  of  anthrax,  the  most  acute  of  all,  is  not  so 
frequent  in  hogs  as  in  cattle  and  sheep,  but  wherever  it  occurs,  it 
usually  terminates  within  so  short  a  time,  that  the  owner  of  the 
smitten  animals  will  either  find  them  dead,  or  will  just  come  in  time 
to  see  them  break  down  and  die,  before  he  even  suspected  them  of 
being  sick.  Death  is  almost  instantaneous,  and  treatment,  there- 
fore, is  out  of  the  question.  Some  twelve  or  fourteen  years  ago, 
one  of  my  own  pigs,  a  nice,  thrifty  animal  of  common  stock,  died 
of  this  form  of  anthrax.  It  stepped  back  from  the  trough,  turned 
around,  squealed,  tumbled  down,  and  died  in  less  than  half  a  minute. 
In  some — though  still  rarer — cases  the  termination  is  not  quite  so 
rapid;  the  diseased  animals  manifest  sickness,  by  showing  symp- 
toms of  distress;  their  gait  becomes  unsteady  and  swaggering;  the 
visible  mucous  membranes  appear  very  much  reddened  ;  the  tem- 
perature of  the  body  changes  from  feverish  heat  to  cold  shiver- 
ings,  which  follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession.  After  this 
stage,  the  sick  animals  frequently  vomit  a  bloody  or  discolored 
fluid,  and  usually  die  very  soon,  under  convulsions.  In  some  cases, 
carbuncles  or  erysipelatous  swellings  make  their  appearance  a  short 
time  before  death,  indicating  a  tendency  of  the  morbid  process  to 
localize  itself. 

"THE   MOUTH,    GUM,    OR   GLOSS  ANTHRAX, 

or  malignant  pustule  of  hogs,  is  one  of  the  most  acute  forms  of  the 
second  group,  and  a  comparatively  rare  disease. 

"  Restlessness,  loss  of  appetite,  a  distressful  and  staring  expres- 
sion of  the  eyes,  abnormal  heat  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the 
mouth,  gnashing  the  teeth,  and  slavering,  constitute  the  first  mor- 
bid symptoms,  and  the  first  indications  of  the  presence  of  disease 


•_>.Y>  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

and  high  fever.  Very  soon,  however,  (at  any  rate  within  an  hour 
or  two),  one  or  more,  but  seldom  many,  pustules,  each  the  si/<  of 
a  pea,  or  a  bean,  make  their  appearance  on  the  tongue,  the  ^unis, 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  mouth.  These  pustules,  surrounded  at 
their  base  by  an  erysipelatous  swelling,  are  first  yellowish-white, 
but  change  their  color  very  soon  to  brown,  and  finally  to  black, 
according  to  the  changes  which  their  fluid  contents  are  uml< •r^oin-. 
The  fever,  at  the  same  time,  has  become  very  severe.  These  pus- 
tules, if  not  early  enough  removed  and  destroyed,  together  with 
their  contents,  will  soon  break  and  discharge  their  gangrenous 
fluid,  which  will  causo  mortification  in  every  tissue  with  which  it 
comes  in  contact.  In  such  a  case  the  animal  will  die,  usually  with- 
in a  few  hours,  but  at  any  rate  within  a  few  days.  As  a  general 
rule  in  this,  as  well  as  all  other  forms  of  anthrax,  the  better  tin- 
condition  of  the  patient,  the  sooner  does  it  terminate  in  death. 
The  treatment,  on  account  of  the  very  acute  course,  and  of  the 
peculiar  seat  of  the  disease,  is  difficult.  The  pustules  have  to  be 
opened,  and  emptied  of  their  contents,  by  means  of  a  small 
with  somewhat  sharp  or  thin  edges,  (one  made  of  tin  will  answer 
best),  and  the  remaining  sorts  have  to  be  cauterized,  with  either 
sulphuric,  hydro-chloric,  nitric,  or  carbolic  acid.  The  opening  and 
destroying  of  the  pustules,  and  the  application  of  the  acid,  are 
attended  with  some  danger  to  the  operator,  unless  he  is  very  care- 
ful not  to  soil  his  hands  with  the  contents  of  the  pustules.  A  per- 
son with  sores  on  his  hands  should  never  undertake  it.  The  whole 
operation,  however,  is  useless,  unless  the  pustules  are  opened  in  a 
very  dexterous  manner,  and  their  contents  removed  at  once,  so  as 
to  prevent  the  animal  from  swallowing  them.  The  general  treat- 
ment has  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  foregoing  forms  of  anthrax. 

"  PREVENTION. 

"As  to  prevention,  really  not  much  remains  to  be  said.  Remov- 
ing the  causes,  and,  as  the  disease  is  contagious,  separating  the 
healthy  animals  from  the  sick  ones,  and  destroying  the  contagion 
wherever  it  exists,  by  means  of  crude  carbolic  acid  or  with  chloride 
of  lime— constitute  the  principal  and  most  important  measures  of 
prevention.  Besides  this,  care  must  be  taken,  wherever  it  is  in- 
tended to  improve  the  condition  of  an  animal,  to  do  so  gradually — 
to  feed  regularly  at  all  times,  and  give  nothing  but  what  is  healthy 
and  sound.  That  pure,  clean  water  for  drinking,  is  absolutely 
necessary,  and  that  troughs,  sties,  or  pens,  and  yards,  have  to  be 
kept  as  clean  and  dry  as  possible — need  to  be  specially  mentioned. 
In  those  sections  of  the  country,  in  which  the  natural  condition  of 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  253 

the  soil  is  such  as  to  invite  a  development  of  anthrax  diseases, 
where,  in  other  words,  the  top  soil  consists  of  a  rich  humus,  and 
the  subsoil  of  an  impervious  clay,  or  where  sloughs  and  swamps 
are  extensive  and  numerous,  or  where  the  country  is  subject  to 
inundations — proper  draining,  thorough  cultivation,  drying  of 
the  swamps  and  wet  places,  and  building  dykes  or  levees,  or 
digging  canals,  to  prevent  the  inundations,  constitute  the  only  pre- 
ventives that  can  be  applied.  Medicines,  in  such  cases,  are  of  no 
avail ;  they  can  be  used  to  advantage  only  where  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  assist  the  organism  in  ejecting  waste  material.  Hence,  the 
feeding  of  copperas,  charcoal,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  salt,  ashes,  and  all 
the  hundred  and  one  other  things,  that  have  been  recommended,  is 
perfectly  useless,  if  not  injurious,  and  has  never  prevented  a  soli- 
tary case  of  anthrax,  or  so-called  hog  cholera.  I  am  sure  my  own 
Berkshires  are  as  healthy  and  thrifty  animals  as  can  be  found  any- 
where, and  they  never  receive  anything  of  that  kind ;  but  they  are 
regularly  fed,  have  good  sties,  spacious  yards,  and,  what  is  most 
important,  plenty  of  pure  spring  water  to  drink,  and  to  take  a  bath 
in,  whenever  they  feel  like  it." 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

* 

THE    SO-CALLED  "  HOG    CHOLERA." 
THE  REPORT  OF  DR.  H.  J.  DETMER8. 

During  the  year  1875,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  1876, 
there  prevailed,  in  Missouri,  a  disease  among  swine,  to  an 
alarming  extent,  which  was  called  by  the  farmers  "hog 
cholera."  The  same  disease,  or  one  closely  resembling  it, 
was  exceedingly  destructive  in  Illinois,  and  other  hog- 
producing  States.  The  Missouri  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, recognizing  the  fact  that  a  disease  must  be  under- 
stood before  proper  curative,  or  even  preventive  means 
could  be  employed,  assigned  to  Dr.  H.  J.  Detmers,  Pro- 
fessor of  Veterinary  Science  in  the  State  Agricultural 
College,  the  duty  of  investigating  the  disease  in  its  vari- 


254  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

ous  forms  and  in  all  its  stages.  His  examinations  were 
made  in  different  parts  of  the  State,  on  both  living  and 
dead  animals,  and  animals  with  the  disease  in  various 
degrees  of  development  were  killed,  to  allow  of  post- 
mortem examinations,  careful  inspections  were  made  of 
localities  in  which  the  disease  was  most  prevalent,  etc. 
The  results  of  his  labors  are  embodied  in  a  Report  to  the 
Board,  dated  Sept.  8,  1876.  This  Report,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  unimportant  paragraphs,  is  here  giu-n  : 

"THE  NATURE  OF  THE   DISEASE. 

"  The  morbid  process  presents  itself  in  a  majority  of  cases  as  a 
catarrhal  rheumatic,  and  in  others  as  a  gwtric  rheumatic  or  /• 
rheumatic  affection,  and  exhibited  always  more  or  less  plainly,  a 
decidedly  typhoid  character.  As  a  caturrhal  rheumatic  affection  it 
has  its  principal  scat  in  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  respiratory 
passages,  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  in  the  pulmonal  pleura  or 
serous  membrane  coating  the  external  surface  of  the  lobes  of  the 
lungs,  in  the  costil  pleura  or  serous  lining  of  the  internal  surface  of 
the  chest,  in  the  diaphragm,  and  in  the  pericardium,  or  serous  bag 
enveloping  the  heart.  As  a  gastric  rheumatic  affection,  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  disease  is  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  but 
especially  in  the  liver,  in  the  spleen  or  milt,  in  the  large  and  small 
intestines,  in  the  kidneys  and  ureters,  and  in  the  peritoneum  or 
serous  membrane  lining  the  interior  surface  of  the  abdominal  cav- 
ity, and  constituting  the  external  coat  of  most  of  the  organs  situ- 
ated in  that  part  of  the  body.  Hence,  the  name  Hog  Cholera  is  an 
ill-chosen  one ;  it  tends  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  disease  in  ques- 
tion is  similar  to,  or  identical  with,  the  cholera  of  men,  which  is 
not  the  case ;  therefore  the  application  *  hog  cholera,'  which  has 
already  led  to  a  great  many  mistakes  in  regard  to  treatment  and 
measures  of  prevention,  should  be  abolished  at  once,  and  a  more 
appropriate  name  should  take  its  place.  As  such  a  one  I  wish  to 
propose  'Epizootic  Influenza  of  Swine,'  for  two  reasons:  First,  the 
disease  in  question  bears,  in  all  its  morbid  features,  and  especially 
in  the  diversity  of  its  forms,  produced  by  the  differences  in  the  seat 
of  the  morbid  process,  a  striking  resemblance  to  the  yet  well- 
remembered  epizootic  influenza  of  horses,  which  swept  the  whole 
country  a  few  years  ago  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific ;  second, 
I  admit  it  might  be  more  convenient  to  select  a  name  derived  from 
a  conspicuous  and  characteristic  symptom,  or  from  an  important 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  255 

and  constant  morbid  change— pleuro-pneumonia  of  swine,  for 
instance — if  the  main  seat  of  the  morbid  process  was  always  in  the 
respiratory  organs,  or  invariably  the  same  in  every  patient.  But  as 
this  is  not  the  case,  as  the  seat  of  the  disease  is  found  not  only  in 
the  respiratory  apparatus,  but  also,  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  in 
the  parts  and  organs  connected  with  the  digestive  process,  and,  in 
some  cases,  even  in  the  centres  of  the  nervous  system,  a  name  had 
to  be  chosen  that  is  comprehensive  enough  in  its  meanings  to  cover 
all  the  different  forms  under  which  the  disease  is  able  to  make  its 
appearance,  and,  at  the  same  time,  sufficiently  distinct  to  prevent 
any  diagnostic  confusion.  As  such  a  name  I  cannot  think  of  any 
that  would  answer  better  than  that  of  Epizootic  Influenza  of  Swine, 
which,  therefore,  I  recommend  for  a  general  adoption. 

"SYMPTOMS   AND    MOEBID    CHANGES. 

"  As  the  morbid  process  has  its  seat  in  various  organs  or  parts  of 
the  body,  the  disease  presents  itself  in  different  forms,  and  mani- 
fests its  presence  by  different  symptoms,  so  that,  at  any  rate,  besides 
other  complications,  two  principal,  and  two  subordinate,  forms  or 
varieties  must  be  discriminated. 

1.  The  Catarrhal  Rheumatic  Forms. — This  is  the  most  frequent 
®f  the  two  principal  forms.  The  morbid  process  has  its  main  scat 
in  the  respiratory  organs ;  the  disease  presents  the  features  of  a 
respiratory  disorder,  and  either  the  catarrhal  or  the  rheumatic 
character  predominates,  or  both  are  equally  developed.  If  the  lat- 
ter is  the  case,  the  whole  respiratory  apparatus  may  be  found  dis- 
eased. If  the  catarrhal  character  is  the  one  that  is  most  devel- 
oped, the  principal  seat  of  the  disease  -will  be  found  in  the  larynx, 
in  the  windpipe,  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  and,  to  a  larger  or  smaller 
extent,  in  the  substance  of  the  lungs;  and  if  the  rheumatic  form  is 
the  predominating  one,  the  principal  morbid  changes  occur  in  the 
serous  membranes  of  the  chest,  (the  costal  and  pulmonal  pleura  and 
the  pericardium),  and  also,  to  some  extent,  in  the  tissue  of  the 
lungs.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  catarrhal  and  the  rheumatic 
character  are  blended  with  each  other,  and  the  respiratory  pas- 
sages, the  tissue  of  the  lungs,  and  the  serous  membranes,  or  parts 
of  them,  are  more  or  less  diseased. 

"  Animals  afflicted  with  the  catarrhal  rheumatic  form  indicate 
the  presence  of  the  disease  by  a  short,  more  or  less  hoarse,  hacking 
cough — generally  one  of  the  first  symptoms — by  difficulty  of 
breathing,  a-  panting  or  drawing  motion  of  the  flanks  at  each 
breath,  by  holding  the  head  in  a  peculiar,  stretched,  and  somewhat 
drooping  position,  by  a  slow  and  undecided  gait,  a  peculiar  hoarse- 


250  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

ness  when  caused  to  squeal,  etc.  The  attending  fever  is  severe 
enough  to  announce  its  presence  by  unmistakable  symptoms,  such 
as  accelerated  pulsation,  changeable  temperature,  etc.  Some  of 
the  sick  animals  show  at  the  beginning  of  the  disease  a  tendency  to 
vomit,  and  have  diarrhoea,  while  others  are  more  or  less  constipated 
from  the  first,  and  remain  constipated  till  the  disease  is  ready  to 
terminate  in  death.  If  the  catarrhal  character  is  the  most  prevail- 
ing,  but  especially  if  the  morbid  process  has  developed  itself  prin- 
cipally in  the  throat  and  in  the  windpipe,  more  or  less  swelling 
(quinsy)  will  make  its  appearance. 

44  At  the  post  mortem  examination  some  important  morbid 
changes  will  invariably  be  found  in  the  lungs.  Portions  of  the  same 
have  become  impervious  to  air  by  being  gorged  with  exudation.  The 
diseased  tissue  has  lost  its  spongy  features  has  become  heavier,  ami 
more  solid,  similar  in  appearance  and  consistency  to  a  piece  of  liver 
— a  condition  called  hcpatization.  In  some  cases  the  diseased  or 
hepatized  parts  of  the  lungs  present  a  uniform  red  or  reddish-brown 
color,  and  indicate  that  the  exudation  has  been  produced,  and  1»<  n 
deposited  in  the  tissue  of  all  the  diseased  lobules,  at  the  same  tiim •, 
or  without  interruption.  In  other  cases,  the  single  lobules  in  the 
diseased  portions  of  the  lungs  present  different  colon;  some  arc 
red,  some  brown,  and  others  gray  or  yellowish-gray,  which  gives 
the  whole  hepatized  part  a  somewhat  marbled  appearance,  and 
shows  that  the  exudation  has  been  produced  and  been  deposited  at 
different  periods.  The  gray  heputization,  which  is  the  oldest,  and 
the  brown,  which  comes  next  in  age,  contain  frequently  a  few 
tubercles,  or  even  here  and  there  a  small  ulcer  interspersed.  Other- 
wise neither  ulceration  nor  suppuration  has  been  observed.  Im- 
portant morbid  changes  are  usually  found  also  in  the  serous  mem- 
branes of  the  thorax.  The  same  consist  in  a  more  or  less  firm  coales- 
cence between  parts  of  the  pulmonal  pleura  and  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  the  costal  pleura,  and  in  an  accumulation  of  a  larger  or 
smaller  quantity  of  straw-colored  water  or  scrum  in  the  chest.  IB 
other  cases,  those  in  which  the  rheumatic  character  has  been  pre- 
dominating, the  morbid  products  of  the  diseased  serous  mem- 
branes are  frequently  very  copious ;  the  adhesion  between  the  pul- 
monal and  costal  pleura,  or  between  the  external  surface  of  the 
lungs  and  the  internal  surface  of  the  walls  of  the  thorax,  is  usually 
very  extensive  ;  and  in  some  cases  parts  of  the  posterior  surface  of 
one  or  both  lungs  are  found  firmly  united  with  the  corresponding 
parts  of  the  diaphragm  or  membraneous  partition  which  separates 
the  chest  from  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  quantity  of  serous  ex- 
udation, or  straw-colored  water  deposited  in  the  chest  is  often 


SO-CALLED   HOG   CHOLERA.  267 

very  large,  and  the  pericardium,  too,  contains  in  most  cases  a  larger 
or  smaller  quantity,  sometimes  enough  to  interfere  seriously  with 
the  functions  of  the  heart,  and  to  constitute  thereby  the  imme- 
diate cause  of  death.  The  blood  is  found  to  be  thin  and  watery 
in  every  case,  and  coagulates  rapidly  to  a  uniform,  but  somewhat 
pale-red  clot  and  of  loose  texture.  Its  quantity  is  always  very  small. 

"  2.  The  Gastric  Rheumatic  Form.—  This  form  presents  itself 
not  quite  so  often  as  the  catarrhal  rheumatic,  but  is  fully  as  malig- 
nant, and  constitutes  the  second  main  form  which  the  disease  is 
found  to  assume.  The  morbid  process  has  its  principal  seat,  and 
produces  the  most  important  morbid  changes,  in  some  of  the  or- 
gans  situated  in  the  abdominal  cavity,  but  especially  in  the  liver, 
in  the  spleen  or  milt,  in  the  kidneys,  the  ureters,  in  the  intestines 
or  guts,  and  almost  invariably  in  the  peritoneum  or  serous  mem- 
brane, which  lines  the  interior  surface  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
and  constitutes  the  external  coat  of  nearly  every  intestine. 

"  The  symptoms  which  present  themselves  while  the  animal  is 
living,  differ  not  very  essentially  from  those  observed  in  the  catarr- 
hal rheumatic  form.  The  short,  hacking  cough,  characteristic  of 
the  latter,  is  more  or  less  wanting ;  the  difficulty  of  breathing  is 
less  plain  ;  the  weakness  in  the  hind  quarters,  and  the  staggering  or 
unsteady  gait,  observed  only  in  limited  degrees  in  the  catarrhal 
rheumatic  form,  is  more  conspicuous,  and  the  fever  is  fully  as 
high  in  one  form  as  in  the  other. 

"  In  severe  cases,  the  affected  animals  arch  their  backs,  or  rather 
the  lumbal  portion  of  the  same  to  a  very  high  degree,  so  that  the 
outline  of  the  back  resembles  somewhat  the  shape  of  an  m .  I  ob- 
served this  especially  in  those  cases  in  which  the  morbid  process 
has  established  itself  in  the  kidneys  and  in  the  ureters,  and  in 
which  a  large  quantity  of  serous  exudation,  or  straw-colored  water, 
had  accumulated  in  the  abdominal  cavity. 

"  Animals  affected  with  the  gastric  form,  show  usually  more  or 
less  costiveness  of  the  bowels.  The  dung  is  of  the  consistency  of 
shoemaker's  wax,  and  is  voided  in  small,  irregular- shaped  balls, 
which  are  usually  coated  with  a  layer  of  grayish  or  discolored  mu- 
cus. Still,  if  the  disease  is  near  its  fatal  termination,  the  consti- 
pation, in  many  cases,  gives  way  to  a  profuse  and  fetid  diarrhoea, 
which  may  be  looked  upon,  in  every  instance,  as  a  very  fatal  sign, 
and  a  forerunner  of  death. 

"  The  principal  morbid  changes,  as  I  have  found  them,  are  as 
follows :  1.  Degeneration  of  the  liver,  brought  about  by  a  copious 
exudation  infiltrated  into  the  tissue  of  that  organ.  Such  a  degen- 


258  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

eration,  altliough  not  a  constant  morbid  change,  is  found  quito 
often.  In  some,  not  very  frequent  cases,  a  few  tulien-les,  and  in 
others,  still  less  frequent,  even  a  few  very  small  AiMCeettB,  have 
been  found  imbedded  in  the  diseased  substance  of  tin  livtr.  2. 
Morbid  enlargement  of  the  spleen  or  milt  I  found  this  chan.*.^  in 
nearly  every  case.  In  some  cases,  the  enlargement  was  not  very 
conspicuous,  but  in  others  the  spleen  was  more  than  three  tiim •>  its 
natural  size,  was  perfectly  gorged  with  blood,  presented  a  dark 
black-brown  color,  and  was  so  soft  that  very  slight  prison  with 
a  finger  was  sufficient  to  sever  its  tissue.  3.  In  quite  a  large  num. 
ber  of  them  I  found  one  or  both  kidneys  diseased,  enlarged,  and 
presenting  an  inflamed  appearance.  In  one  case,  both  tid&eyi  ind 
both  ureters  exhibited  a  high  degree  of  inflammation,  and  consid- 
erable gangrenous  destruction.  The  latter,  however,  was  probably 
not  a  consequence  of  the  disease  ;  the  animal  had  been  drenched 
repeatedly  with  oil  of  turpentine,  and  was  the  only  one  in  \\hi«-h 
I  found  any  gangrene.  In  another  animal,  which,  by  the  way,  fftl 
already  convalescent,  and  was  killed  by  bleeding,  I  found  OIK  kid- 
ney enlarged  to  three  times  its  natural  size,  its  pelvis  very  much 
distended,  and  its  funnel-shaped  ureter  dilated  to  such  an  cxt<  nt, 
where  it  proceeds  from  the  kidney,  as  to  present  a  diameter  nearly 
one  inch  and  a  half.  The  walls  of  the  ureter  were  very  thick  and 
callous,  especially  at  the  anterior,  funnel-shaped  end,  and  the  lat- 
ter contained  in  its  interior  a  semi-solid,  fibrous  substance,  which 
occupied  the  whole  cavity,  and  extended  even  into  the  kidney.  4. 
In  some  cases,  I  found  the  membranes  of  the  intestines,  or  guts, 
but  especially  those  of  the  jejunum  or  small  intestine,  of  the  coecum 
and  colon,  or  larger  intestines,  and  also  the  rectum,  in  a  more  or 
less  inflamed  and  degenerated  condition.  In  two  cases,  a  whole 
convolution  of  the  jejunum  had  united  to  an  almost  solid  bunch. 
On  opening  the  latter,  I  found,  in  each  case,  all  three  membranes, 
but  particularly  the  external  or  serous  membrane,  and  the  internal 
or  mucous  membrane,  very  much  swelled  and  degenerated,  the 
passage  nearly  closed,  and  in  a  small  cavity  in  the  centre  of  the 
bunch,  one  or  two  large  round  worms  (Echinorhynchus  yfgaa)  im- 
bedded. In  another  case  I  found,  besides  other  morbid  changes, 
a  few  round  worms  in  the  stomach,  and  in  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  guts  or  intestines,  a  large  number  of  callous  scars,  such  as 
are  usually  left  behind  where  the  gigantic  Echinorhynchus,  or  hook- 
headed  worm,  had  been  fastening  itself.  These  three  cases  just 
mentioned,  are  the  only  ones  in  which  I  have  found  any  entozoa, 
or  worms,  in  the  digestive  canal.  5.  In  almost  every  case,  I  found 
larger  or  smaller  portions  of  the  peritoneum  or  serous  membrane 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CUOLEKA.  £59 

which  lines  the  inner  surface  of  the  walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity, 
and  the  external  surface  of  nearly  every  intestine,  swelled  and 
more  or  less  inflamed,  and  mobility  changed.  In  some  cases,  even 
a  coalescence  between  parts  of  the  intestines,  especially  the  jejunum 
and  rectum,  and  the  walls  of  the  abdominal  cavity  had  been 
effected  ;  iii  case,  a  part  of  the  jejunum  had  become  firmly  united 
to  the  lower  border  of  the  right  lobe  of  the  liver,  and  hi  another 
the  whole  rectum  adhered  so  firmly  to  the  upper  wall  of  the  pelvis 
and  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdominal  cavity  that  it  required 
the  use  of  a  knife  to  affect  a  separation.  6.  I  found  in  every  ani- 
mal that  had  been  affected  with  the  gastric  rheumatic  form  of  the 
disease,  a  larger  or  smalkr  quantity  of  the  straw-colored  water  or 
serum,  and  small  lumps  and  flakes  of  coagulated  fibrine  in  the  ab- 
dominal cavity ;  in  some  cases,  the  quantity  was  quite  a  large  one, 
and  in  others  the  quantity  was  comparatively  small. 

"  Two  cases  must  be  considered  as  subordinate  forms,  in  which 
either  one  of  the  principal  forms— the  catarrhal  rheumatic  and 
gastric  rheumatic— is  essentially  modified  by  being  complicated 
with  an  affection  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  or  with  a  seri- 
ous disorder  of  the  lymphatic  system.  Hence,  two  subordinate 
forms  have  to  be  added. 

"  The  perspiration — perceptible  and  imperceptible  perspiration — 
can  be  interrupted,  or  in  other  worc^,  the  skin  can  be  disqualified 
to  perform  its  functions  by  several  means ;  for  instance,  by  a  dis- 
turbance or  partial  interruption  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in 
its  capillary  vessels,  by  congestion,  inflammation  or  degeneration 
of  its  tissue,  or  of  a  part  of  its  tissue,  by  a  closing  of  its  pores  by 
mechanical  means,  etc.  This  granted,  it  remains  to  ascertain,  if 
those  hogs  and  pigs  which  have  been,  or  which  are  yet,  affected 
with  the  epizootic  influenza  of  swine  (erroneously  hog  cholera), 
have  been  subjected  to  one  or  more  of  those  just  named  influences, 
or  agencies,  able  to  cause  an  interruption  or  partial  cessation  of 
the  perspiration.  Taking  these  facts  just  as  they  have  presented 
themselves,  that  question  must  be  answered  in  the  affirmative.  My 
investigations  and  my  inquiries  have  convinced  me  that  in  all 
those  hogs  or  pigs  which  have  suffered  from,  or  died  of,  that  dis- 
ease, one  or  more  of  those  influences  or  agencies  have  been  at 
work,  as  I  shall  try  to  show. 

"  1.  All  animals  affected  with  that  disease— at  any  rate,  all  those 
which  I  have  seen,  and  I  have  seen  a  very  large  number — were 
exceedingly  lousy.  Lice  irritate  the  skin,  keeping  it  in  a  semi- 
inflamed  condition,  cause  swelling,  and  finally  a  gradual  dsgenera- 


260  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

tion  of  its  external  layer,  and  constitute,  therefore,  beyond  a  doubt 
a  cause  disturbing  to  some  extent  the  normal  perspiration. 

"2.  All  the  hogs  and  pigs  which  have  contracted  the  di>ea*e, 
have  been  exposed,  night  and  day,  to  all  the  sudden  changes  of 
temperature  and  weather  so  frequent  in  our  Western  States.  Some 
of  the  animals  have  been  kept  in  small,  wet,  and  dim  \ 
inclosures,  without  a  roof  to  protect  them ;  they  had  to  suffer 
during  the  day  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  from  the  lu-at  which 
naturally  accumulated  in  a  small  space,  or  lot,  walled  in  by  a  tight 
fence,  and  is  constantly  increased  by  the  wet  manure  and  other  or- 
ganic substances.  During  the  night,  the  sumo  animals  w 
posed  to  the  chilling  influence  of  the  cold  night  air,  and  frequently 
very  heavy  dews,  not  to  mention  the  effects  of  severe  rains  and 
thunder  storms.  Further,  after  each  heavy  rain,  the  animal>  thus 
kept  had  a  chance  U/  get  their  whole  body  covered  with  mud,  and 
the  pores  of  their  skin  thoroughly  closed,  but  an  opportunity  to 
get  rid  of  the  mud  by  taking  a  bath  in  clean  water,  was  never 
given.  Such  influences,  evidently,  arc  very  apt  to  cause  irrci:ul  u 
Hies  in  the  circulation  of  their  blood  in  the  capillary  vessels  of  the 
skin,  and,  in  consequence,  an  interruption  of  the  perspiration. 
Other  animals  have  been  kept  in  comparatively  large  herds,  and 
have  been  allowed  to  run  at  large  in  the  barnyard,  in  a  so-called 
hog-lot,  in  the  woods,  etc.  These,  too,  were  exposed  more  or  less 
to  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun  during  the  day,  but  during  the 
night,  the  same,  in  most  cases,  found  shelter  under  a  corn-crib,  un- 
der an  old  stable,  or  an  old  barn,  or,  at  any  rate,  in  the  closest  and 
dirtiest  places,  where  they  lacked  room,  and  \vherc  they  were  often 
crowded  on  top  of  each  other  when  retiring  to  sleep.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  animals  became  heated  and  perspiring;  and  took 
cold  and  became  chilled  when  they  rose  in  the  morning  from  this 
common  lair.  A  sudden  cooling,  however,  or  a  sudden  reduction 
of  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  body,  is  apt  to  effect  a  con- 
traction of  the  capillary  vessels  of  the  skin,  hence  diminished  sup- 
ply of  blood,  and,  in  consequence,  a  decrease  or  partial  interruption 
of  the  functions  of  the  skin.  The  animals,  thus  suddenly  cooled 
by  the  cool  morning  air  and  the  wet  dew,  become,  in  the  course  of 
the  forenoon,  again  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the  heat  of 
the  day,  which  induces  them  to  go  into  the  first  pool  of  water 
—if  one  was  accessible — to  take  a  bath.  This  is  all  right  and  well 
enough,  because,  in  the  summer,  a  hog  should  have  access  to  water, 
and  an  opportunity  to  take  a  bath  as  often  as  it  desires.  In  all 
those  places,  however,  in  which  the  disease  has  made  its  appear- 
ance, I  have  found  the  water  to  which  the  hog  had  access,  almost 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  261 

invariably  so  shallow,  and  of  such  a  limited  quantity,  that  the 
bathing  and  wallowing  of  one  of  a  few  animals  was  sufficient  to 
convert  the  same  into  a  sticky,  semi-fluid  mud.  Consequently,  if 
the  herd  was  a  large  one,  only  a  few  animals — and  these  invariably 
the  stronger  and  most  active  ones — had  now  and  then  a  chance  to 
find  clean  water,  and  to  reap  real  benefit  from  taking  a  bath.  All 
others,  but  especially  the  younger  and  smaller  animals  (shotes), 
were  compelled  to  wait  till  the  first  comers  were  through  with 
their  bathing,  and  had  changed  the  water  to  mud  ;  the  former, 
therefore,  had  scarcely  ever  an  opportunity  to  clean  themselves 
from  the  mud  of  the  preceding  day,  and  to  open  the  pores  of  the 
skin  by  taking  a  bath  in  clean  water.  If  they  wish  to  take  a  little 
cooling,  they  have  to  be  satisfied  with  a  mud-bath,  and  as  every 
new  bath  is  a  mud-bath  again,  the  pores  of  the  skin,  as  a  conse- 
quence, instead  of  being  opened,  will  become  closed  more  and 
more  effectually  from  day  to  day,  until  finally  the  perspiration  will 
be  thoroughly  interrupted,  ani  the  result,  disease,  will  make  its 
appearance.  It  is  different  if  the  herd  is  a  small  one,  for  then 
nearly  every  animal  will  have,  sometimes,  a  chance  to  open  the 
pores  of  its  skin  by  a  bath  in  tolerably  clean  water,  and  the  per- 
spiration will  not  be  seriously  interrupted.  That  these  directions 
must  be  correct,  can  be  J>rove:l  by  my  observations,  which  show 
that  in  almost  every  large  herd,  nearly  all  the  younger  and  weaker 
animals  (shotes),  have  become  a  prey  to  the  disease,  while  the  large 
and  stronger,  or  most  active  animals,  which  are  usually  the  firs} 
ones  to  go  to  the  water  in  the  morning,  when  the  same  is  yet  tol- 
erably clean,  and  which  usually  secure  at  night  the  best  places  in 
the  common  lair,  have  either  remained  exempt,  or  have  had  the 
disease  in  a  milder  form,  and  have  mostly  recovered.  Finally, 
small  herds  have  either  suffered  fewer  losses,  have  been  less  se- 
verely attacked,  or  have  remained  exempt  altogether. 

"  2.  Agencies  which  interfere  directly  with  the  process  of  breathing, 
and  foreign  substances  which  enter  the  respiratory  passages.  These, 
too,  as  already  indicated,  are  of  a  different  character.  When  I 
first  commenced  my  investigation,  it  struck  me  that  all  these  swine 
— pigs,  shotes,  and  grown  hogs,  of  every  age  and  description — 
which  run  at  large  in  the  streets  and  thoroughfares  of  Kansas  City, 
Westport,  Independence,  Lexingtou,  and  other  places,  and  lead  the 
most  independent  life  possible,  but  do  not  congregate,  go  home  in 
the  evening,  and  belong  to  parties  who  own  but  one,  two,  or  may 
be  three  animals,  as  also  all  those  swine  which  are  kept  by  them- 
selves, either  one  by  one,  or  only  a  few  together,  and,  finally,  all 
those  which  are  kept  in  comparatively  small  herdi,  in  pastures, 


•.>i;-.'  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

orchards,  or  woods,  coated  everywhere  with  grass,  and  perfectly 
destitute  of  dusty,  bare  ground,  and  of  old  mamm-  heaps,  aiv,  re- 
luaiu,  and  have  been,  with  rare  exceptions,  perfectly  lu-altliy.  I 
say,  with  rare  exceptions,  for  it  has  been  reported  to  uie  that  a  fvw 
of  these  swine  running  at  large  in  the  streets  have  died,  but  I  have 
not  been  able  to  ascertain  with  certainty  the  causes  of  their  death. 
On  the  other  hand,  all  those  animals  which  have  been  kept  in 
yards,  pastures,  or  fields,  etc.,  which  consist  partially  or  wholly  of 
bare,  dusty  ground,  or  which  contain  heaps  and  accumulations  of 
old  manure,  have  suffered,  and  are  suffering  severely,  and  the  inoro 
so  the  larger  the  herd,  and  the  worse  the  dust  of  soil  and  ma- 
nure. In  large  herds,  composed  of  100  head  or  more,  the  mortal- 
ity has  been  as  high  as  from  70  to  90  per  cent;  in  smaller  herds, 
the  same  has  been  from  25  to  60  per  cent,  and  where  only  a  few 
animals  have  been  kept  together,  and  consequently  each  animal 
was  compelled  to  inhale  only  the  dust  kicked  up  by  itself,  and  oc- 
casionally, by  one  or  two  others,  the  mortality  has  been  very  l->\\, 
has  seldom  exceeded  10  per  cent,  or  no  fatal  cases  have  occurred 
at  all.  Further,  in  all  those  cases,  in  which  the  hogs  or  pigs  have 
been  compelled  to  inhale,  with  each  breath,  a  large  quantity  of 
soil  and  manure,  ground  to  a  fine  powder  by  the  rays  of  the  sun, 
and  by  heat,  rain,  wind,  tramping,  and  rooting,  all  the  post  mortem 
examinations — and  I  have  made  a  large  number  during  the  last 
four  weeks— have  revealed  as  principal  morbid  changes  a  morbii 
affection  of  the  eyes,  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  passages 
(throat,  wind-pipe,  bronchial  tubes),  hepatization  of  the  lungs  in 
various  stages  of  development,  and,  in  some  cases,  even  some 
tubercles,  or  a  few  small  abscesses  in  the  pulmonal  tissue,  while 
the  serous  membrane  (pulmonal  and  costal  pleura,  pericardium, 
and  peritoneum)  presented  themselves  in  a  comparatively  healthy 
condition,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  the  causes  described  un- 
der 1  had  acted  with  those  under  discussion. 

"  If  these  facts  just  related  are  duly  taken  into  consideration, 
scarcely  any  doubt  can  remain  that  the  constant  inhalation  of 
powdered  soil  an  1  manure  constitutes  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  the  epizootic  influenza  of  swine. 

"  As  another  noxious  influence,  injuring  the  organs  of  respira- 
tion, may  be  considered  the  effluvia  emanating  from  old,  decom- 
posing manure  heaps,  or  farm  accumulations  of  filth,  and  dirt  in 
pig -sties  or  hog- yards;  but  as  these  are  only  of  subordinate' import- 
ance, I  do  not  deem  it  necessasy  to  enter  into  further  details. 

"3.  Tfw  auxiliary,  or  ig<jratiting,  and  predisposing  causes.  As 
such,  I  have  to  consider  all  the  injurious  agencies,  or  noxious  in- 


SO-CALLED    HOG   CHOLERA.  263 

fluences,  which  are  calculated  t>  promote  or  to  develop  the  typhoid 
character  of  the  disease,  to  weaken  the  constitution  of  the  animal, 
or  to  produce  a  predisposition.  As  belonging  to  this  class,  I  have 
to  mention  first,  as  having  a  very  injurious  effect  upon  the  animal 
system,  an  impure,  foul,  or  filthy  condition  of  the  water  for  drink- 
ing ;  and  secondly,  the  filth  and  manure  which  the  animals  are 
obliged  to  consume  with  their  food.  On  most  farms,  the  swine 
are  fed  with  corn  in  the  ear,  which,  on  a  great  many  farms,  is 
thrown  to  them  with  great  carelessness,  in  the  very  filthiest  and 
dirtiest  places,  so  that  scarcely  a  kernel  of  corn  can  be  picked  up 
free  from  dirt  or  manure.  That  such  a  wholesale  consumption 
of  dirt  and  excrements  must  finally  undermine  the  constitution 
of  even  the  healthiest  an  1  most  vigorous  animal,  and  must  give 
to  any  disease  that  may  happen  to  affect  the  same  some  typhoid 
character,  is  too  evident  to  need  much  explanation. 

"  3.  The  Cerebro-EJieumatic  Fwm. — The  same,  though  always 
blended  with,  and  in  a  certain  degree  subordinate  to,  one  of  the 
two  principal  forms,  has  been  observed  in  a  large  number  of  sick 
animals.  The  latter,  besides  exhibiting  all  the  symptoms  of  one  or 
another  of  the  principal  (catarrhal-rheumatic  or  bilious-rheumatic) 
forms,  show  also  plain  indications  of  morbid  affection  of  the 
brain.  These  indications  consist  principally  in  partial  or  perfect 
blindness,  a  very  staggering  gait,  and  aimless  movements  in  general. 

"  On  opening  the  skull,  I  found,  invariably,  more  or  less  swell- 
ing in  the  membranes  enveloping  the  brain,  a  larger  or  smaller 
quantity  of  serum  deposited  inside  of  the  hard  membrane  (dura 
mater),  the  substance  of  the  brain  more  or  less  softened,  and  the 
small  cavities  or  ventricles  of  the  latter  organ  filled  with  serum. 
The  other  morbid  changes  found  at  the  post  mortem  examinations 
are  the  same  that  have  been  described  under  the  head  of  their  re- 
spective form. 

"  4.  The  Lymphatic-ETieumatic  Form.— The  same,  too,  has  been 
observed  quite  often,  but  always  as  a  complication  of  one  of  the 
principal  forms,  described  under  1  and  2.  The  whole  morbid  pro- 
cess presents  a  somewhat  scrofulous  character.  The  lymphatic 
system  is  plainly  affected ;  tumors  and  ulcers  showing  a  scrofulous 
character,  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  especially 
on  the  gums.  Hence  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  cases,  al- 
though complicated  and  blended  invariably  to  such  an  extent  with 
one  or  another  of  the  main  or  principal  forms,  as  to  make  it  impossi- 
ble to  draw  distinct  lines,  have  to  be  looked  upon  as  a  subordinate 
form,  with  a  lymphatic  character. 


2G4  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

"  I  have  been  informed  repeatedly,  by  reliable  persons,  that  In 
sonic  of  the  sick  animals  cutaneous  eruptions  have  constituted  one 
of  the  most  conspicuous  symptoms  of  the  disease.  If  thi>  i  a 
fact,  it  is  possible  that  yet  a  fifth  (erysipeiatous)  form  has  been 
added.  Still,  I  have  had  no  chance  to  examine  such  a  patient, 
notwithstanding  that  I  have  seen  a  large  number  of  sick  animals, 
exceeding,  I  should  judge,  one  thousand;  I  am,  therefore,  not  pre- 
pared to  decide  whether  the  cutaneous  eruption  is  a  product  of 
the  same  morbid  process  which  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  other  mor- 
bid changes,  or  whether  the  same  is  an  independent  diseas< ,  and 
merely  an  accidental  complication. 

"  It  is  probably  not  necessary  to  mention  that  the  morbid  changes 
which  have  been  described  as  the  products  or  attendants  of  a  certain 
form,  are  but  seldom  found  as  a  total  in  one  and  the  same  animal, 
as  one  or  more  of  them  are  usually  missing,  or  but  little  develop  d. 
Neither  will  it  be  essential  to  state  that  even  the  two  principal 
forms  of  epizootic  influenza  of  swine — leaving  the  subordinate 
forms  out  of  consideration — are  scarcely  ever  observed  entirely 
independent  of  each  other,  or  without  being  complicated  in  the 
least  with  any  other  form ;  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  gastric  rhcu 
mat i<-  and  the  catarrhal  rheumatic  are,  in  many  instances,  blended 
and  complicated  with  each  other  to  such  an  extent  as  to  make  it 
impossible  to  decide  which  one  has  to  be  considered  as  the  most 
predominating.  In  such  cases,  the  symptoms,  too,  are  blended 
with  each  other,  and  morbid  changes,  frequently  of  equal  import- 
ance, are  found  in  both  large  cavities  in  the  chest  and  in  the  ab- 
domen. These  facts  are  easily  understood  by  any  one  who  is  at 
all  familiar  with  pathology  and  with  morbid  anatomy.  The  main 
or  fundamental  character  of  epizootic  influenza  of  swine  is  always 
rheumatic,  and  principal  seat  is  the  system  of  the  serous  mem- 
branes, abounding  in  every  large  cavity  of  the  animal  body. 
Serous  membranes  not  only  line  the  interior  of  those  cavities,  but 
constitute,  also,  the  external  coat  of  nearly  every  internal  organ. 
Hence  it  is  but  natural  that  such  disease  should  localize  in  many 
different  parts  of  the  animal  organism,  to  produce,  in  consequence, 
different  morbid  symptoms,  and  to  cause  different  forms  of  disease. 
It  is  true,  that,  in  some  cases,  the  disease  exhibits  a  prevailing 
catarrhal  character ;  but  if  it  is  taken  into  consideration  that  the 
causes  of  rheumatic  affection  and  of  catarrhal  diseases  are  often 
essentially  the  same,  and  that  the  seat  or  character  of  a  disorder 
depend,  frequently,  upon  an  individual  predisposition  of  the  ani- 
mal, a  further  explanation  will  not  be  needed. 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLEKA. 


"THE  CAUSES. 

"  To  ascertain  the  causes  has  been  my  principal  object.  It  was, 
therefore,  necessary  to  observe  a  large  number  of  cases,  and  to 
investigate  the  disease  in  different  localities.  This  I  have  done, 
and  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  some  of  the  causes  —  and 
I  think  I  am  not  mistaken  if  I  say  the  most  important  ones  — 
are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  admit  removal,  notwithstanding  that 
they  are  diverse  and  numerous,  and  have  their  source,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  the  manner  of  farming  and  stock  raising  hi  the  West. 
Although  I  will  not  deny  the  possibility  of  an  existence  of  certain 
agencies  of  a  so-called  cosmic  or  telluric  character,  calculated  to 
act  as  a  cause  or  to  contribute  to  producing  the  disease,  I  must 
confess  I  have  not  been  able  to  discover  anything  in  the  whole 
morbid  process,  or  any  morbid  change  that  cannot  be  the  product 
of  those  noxious  influences  which  I  consider  as  the  main,  if  not 
the  exclusive,  causes  of  the  disease,  and  which,  in  my  opinion,  are 
well  able  to  produce  every  one  of  those  morbid  changes,  which  I 
had  an  opportunity  to  observe.  Those  injurious  influences,  or 
agencies,  which  I  am  obliged  to  consider  as  the  principal  causes, 
act  in  different  ways,  for  a  better  survey,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes. 

"  As  belonging  to  the  first  class,  I  look  upon  everything  that  is 
apt  to  cause  an  interruption  of  the  perspiration,  and  in  the  second 
class  I  place  all  such  noxious  influences  as  are  able  to  interfere, 
directly,  with  the  process  of  respiration,  and  all  such  foreign  sub- 
stances as  enter  the  respiratory  passages,  and  cause,  thereby,  con- 
gestion and  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  mucous  membranes 
and  of  the  tissue  of  the  lungs.  There  are,  also,  as  I  have  already 
mentioned,  some  other  minor  causes  or  agencies  which  contribute, 
in  one  case  more,  in  another  less,  to  the  development  of  the  dis- 
ease, or  which  arc  able  to  cause  the  character  of  the  same  to  be 
more  typhoid.  These  I  will  discuss  under  the  head  of  aggravating 
or  auxiliary  causes,  after  I  shall  have  disposed  of  the  main  or  prin- 
cipal causes. 

"  1.  Injurious  influences  which  act  as  a  cause  of  the  disease,  by 
producing  an  interruption  or  partial  cessation  of  the  perspiration. 
These  influences  are  numerous,  and  of  much  greater  importance 
than  one,  who  looks  at  them  superficially,  may  be  inclined  to  sup- 
pose. The  skin  of  an  animal  is  a  very  important  organ  ;  it  not 
only  serves  as  a  protecting  tegument,  but  has  also  other  vital  offices 
which  are  scarcely  of  less  consequence  to  the  welfare  of  the  ani- 
mal organism  than  those  of  the  lungs.  The  skin  discharges, 


266  SWINE    III  •>]:. \NDttY. 

through  its  pores,  a  large  amount  of  wasted  material,  gaseous  and 
fluid,  and  absorbs  aeriform  and  fluid  substances  from  the  outside 
world.  Consequently,  it  may  be  looked  upon  as  an  organ  wli;>sc 
duty  it  is  to  supplement  the  functions  of  several  other  organs,  but 
especially  those  of  the  lungs  and  of  the  kidneys.  To  ascertain 
the  effect  of  a  total  interruption  of  the  functions  of  the  skin  upon 
tlic  animal  organism,  interesting  experiments  have  been  made  by 
Bouley,  Magendie,  Gerlach,  and  others.  A  complete  interruption 
was  brought  about  by  covering  the  skin  of  various  animals  with 
an  air-tight  coat  of  varnish,  grease,  or  tar,  and  the  results,  accord- 
ing to  Gerlach, have  been  as  follows:  '  Accelerated  pulsation,  extra- 
ordinary fullness  of  the  arteries  until  an  increased  discharge  of 
urine  made  its  appearance,  somewhat  accelerated  breathing,  trem- 
bling of  the  whole  body,  rapid  emaciation,  great  debility,  aug- 
mented secretion  of  an  albuminous  urine  of  gall  (bilifulvin  and 
bitiverdin),  and  a  decrease  of  the  animal  temperature.  Tin-  latter, 
however,  became  not  very  conspicuous  before  the  animal  had  be- 
come emaciated  and  was  near  dying.  The  animals  (horses)  so 
treated  died  in  three  to  ten  days.'  Pigs  coated  all  over  with 
grease,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  lice,  died  wfthin  a  week,  and 
showed  the  same  symptoms. 

"2.  The  office  of  the  skin,  at  least  so  far  as  the  processes  of  eli- 
mination and  absorption  are  concerned,  bears  Abo  a  very  close  rela- 
tion to  the  functions  of  the  diverse  serous  and  mucous  membranes. 
It  is  true,  if  the  skin  is  disqualified  to  perform  its  allotted  duties, 
or  if  the  latter  are  interrupted  by  some  means,  the  same  will  par- 
tially be  performed,  but  partially  only,  by  those  organs  named,  the 
lungs  and  the  kidneys,  which,  in  such  a  case,  will  make  extraordi- 
nary efforts  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  in  the  organic  change  of 
material,  as  indispensable  to  the  preservation  of  health.  Still,  as 
I  have  said,  these  organs,  in  addition  to  their  own  duties,  can  only 
partially  perform  the  functions  of  the  skin ;  certain  parts  of  the 
wasted  material,  constantly  produced,  will  not  be  discharged,  but 
will  remain  in  the  organism.  The  lungs,  the  kidneys,  the  serous 
and  the  mueous  membranes,  if  I  may  use  the  expression,  will  be 
overburdened,  and  the  consequence  will  be  that  just  those  organs 
will  be  the  first  ones  that  become  diseased,  or  that  will  have  to 
suffer  from  over-exertion,  and  from  the  injurious  effects  necessa- 
rily produced  by  a  retention  of  wasted  material  in  the  organism, 
and  by  a  constant  loss  of  organic  compounds  that  cannot  be  spared. 
That  such  a  loss  is  taking  place,  if  the  perspiration  is  interrupted, 
has  been  proved  by  the  experiments  of  Professor  Gerlach,  which 
shows  that  the  urine,  in  such  a  case,  carries  off  albumen.  Fur* 


SO-CALLED   nOG   CHOLERA.  207 

tber,  that  suck  an  interruption  must  necessarily  produce  a  disturb- 
ance in  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  which  results  in  an  extraordi- 
nary flow  of  blood  to  those  organs — lungs,  kidneys,  etc. — burdened 
with  increased  functions,  and  constitutes  in  that  way  a  cause  of 
congestion  and  subsequent  inflammation,  is  too  evident  to  need 
any  further  explanation.  At  any  rate,  these  facts  will  be  very  plain 
to  any  one  who  has  ever  suffered  from  any  cold. 

"  Finally,  I  wish  to  say  a  few  words  in  regard  to  a  hygienic  mis- 
take committed  on  almost  every  farm  in  the  West.  I  refer  to  the 
practice  of  feeding  the  swine  almost  exclusively  with  corn,  a  prac- 
tice which  certainly  is  not  calculated  to  produce  healthy  and  vig- 
orous animals,  but  which  necessarily  must  result,  as  I  shall  try  to 
show,  in  weakening  the  organism,  and  in  creating  a  predisposition 
to  disease.  How  much  or  how  little  this  practice  has  contributed 
to  produce  the  now-prevailing  epizootic  influenza  of  swine,  I  am 
not  prepared  to  decide.  I  have,  however,  reasons  to  suppose  that 
this  practice  has  not  been  without  influence.  The  organism  of  a  do- 
mestic animal  is  composed  of  about  fifteen  or  twenty  elements,  or 
undecomposable  constituents  of  matter,  united  to  numerous  organ- 
ic compounds.  A  constant  change  of  matter  is  taking  place,  and 
a  part  of  these  elements,  in  the  form  of  organic  compounds,  is 
constantly  wasted,  and  carried  off  by  the  various  processes  of  se- 
cretion and  excretion.  The  organism,  therefore,  in  order  to  remain 
healthy,  and  maintain  its  normal  composition,  must  receive,  from 
time  to  time,  an  adequate  supply  of  those  elements,  contained  in 
suitable  or  digestible  organic  compounds,  so  as  to  cover  the  con- 
tinual loss,  and,  if  the  animal  is  young,  to  produce  growth  and 
development.  The  simplest  way  to  introduce  the  elements  into 
the  animal  organism  is  to  give  food  which  contains  them  in  nearly 
the  right  proportions.  A  few  of  these  elements  besides  hydrogen 
and  oxygen,  are  sometimes  in  the  form  of  suitable  compounds, 
contained  in  limited,  though  very  seldom  sufficient,  quantities  in 
the  water  for  drinking ;  for  instance,  calcium  (in  the  form  of  lime), 
iron,  etc.  One  important  element — oxygen — enters  the  organism, 
also,  in  large  quantities  through  the  lungs  and  through  the  skin, 
but  all  others  have  to  be  introduced  wholly,  or  almost  wholly, 
in  the  form  of  food.  Almost  all  kinds  of  fluid,  however,  milk 
perhaps  exccpted,  lack  some  important  elements  of  their  composi- 
tion, contain  others  in  insufficient  quantities,  and  still  others  in 
greater  abundance  than  required.  Therefore,  if  such  a  kind  of 
food  is  given  exclusively — corn,  for  instance, — which  is  destitute 
of  some  of  the  mineral  elements,  and  contains  only  an  insufficient 
quantity  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  which  are  of  so  great  an  im- 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

portancc  in  the  animal  organization,  irregularities  and  disorders  in 
the  exercise  of  the  various  functions,  and  imperfect  development 
of  certain  parts  and  organs,  will  he  the  unavoidable  results. 

"  One  may  ask,  if  the  causes  of  the  diseases  are  of  such  an  ordi- 
nary character,  how  can  it  be  possible  that  it  has  become  such  an 
extensive  epizooty  ? — The  answer  Is  not  very  difficult,  and  an  ex- 
planation is  easily  given.  At  first,  notwithstanding  the  most 
diligent  search  and  patient  inquiry,  I  have  not  been  able  to  dis- 
cover any  injurious  influences  or  agencies  of  a  general  character 
besides  those  enumerated,  which,  possibly,  might  have  acted  as  a 
cause.  Secondly,  the  treatment  or  the  keeping  of  the  swin< 
sentially  everywhere  the  same  in  all  the  Western  States.  The 
causes  mentioned  are,  therefore,  of  a  sufficiently  universal  charar- 
ter  to  produce  an  epizootic  disease.  Our  western  farmer,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  careless  enough,  if  possible,  in  his  treatment  and  care  of 
his  horses  and  cattle,  usually  thinks  a  hog  is  only  a  "hog ;  "  can 
get  along  with  " hoggith"  treatment,  delights  in  nastiness,  filth, 
and  dirt  of  any  description ;  does  not  need  a  dry,  comfortable, 
and  clean  resting  place  during  the  night,  nor  clean  and  fresh  water 
for  drinking  and  bathing;  nor  shade  and  shelter  against  the  burn- 
ing rays  of  a  western  sun,  against  cold  dews  of  the  morning,  or 
the  sudden  changes  of  weather  and  temperature  in  general. 

"  Somebody  may  object,  and  may  say,  if  the  principal  causes  of 
the  disease  have  their  sources  in  the  manner  in  which  the  swine 
are  raised  and  provided  for,  which  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
what  has  been  since  the  country  was  first  settled,  how  then  does  it 
happen,  or  how  can  it  be  explained,  that  the  disease  did  make  its 
appearance  as  an  epizooty  only  a  few  years  ago,  and  not  immedi- 
ately among  the  swine  of  the  first  settlerst  or  while  the  country 
was  yet  new,  and  is  now  increasing  in  violence  from  year  to  year? 
This  question  is  not  difficult  to  answer.  While  the  country  was 
new,  pig-sties,  hog-yards,  hog-lots,  and  pastures,  and  the  plaees 
which  contained  the  water  for  drinking  and  bathing  were  not  yet 
contaminated  and  impregnated  to  such  an  extent  as  they  arc  now 
with  filth  and  excrement ;  bare  and  dusty  ground  was  less  abund- 
ant, and  the  number  of  swine  kept  together,  on  one  dry  place,  as  a 
general  rule,  was  a  great  deal  smaller.  The  disease  will  increase 
in  malignancy  and  spread  in  the  same  proportion  in  which  dung 
and  dirt  is  allowed  to  accumulate,  and  in  which  the  size  of  the 
herds  is  increased. 

"A  great  many  farmers  believe,  nay, hold  themselves  convinced, 
that  the  epizootic  influenza  of  swine  is  a  contagious  disease,  and 
they  have  kindly  furnished  me  facts  which,  I  admit,  point  very 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  269 

strongly  that  way.  To  tell  the  truth,  I  am  not  yet  prepared  to 
decide  that  question,  because  such  a  decision  requires  numerous 
experiments,  and  these  I  have  not  been  able  to  make.  Still  I  am 
inclined  to  think  the  epizootic  character,  or  the  fearful  spreading 
of  the  disease,  can  be  explained  satisfactorily  without  the  existence 
of  a  contagion.  The  fact  that  the  hogs  and  pigs  running  at  large 
in  the  streets  of  the  cities,  with  a  few  exceptions,  are  healthy,  and 
remain  exempted  from  the  disease,  goes  far  to  show  that  the  latter 
is  not  communicated  by  a  contagion,  as  animals  leading  such  a 
vagabond  life  are,  as  a  general  rule,  much  more  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  contagions  than  any  others. 


"  In  some  cases  the  disease  has  had  a  fatal  termination  within 
two  days  after  the  first  plain  symptoms  of  sickness  have  made  their 
appearance,  and  a  few  cases  have  been  reported  to  me,  in  which  the 
animals  have  died  within  six  or  twelve  hours;  but  lam  inclined 
to  think  the  first  symptoms  have  escaped  observation — a  very  com- 
mon occurrence  in  diseases  of  swine.  The  average  duration  of 
the  disease  may  be  set  down  as  from  five  to  fifteen  days.  Still  some 
animals  have  been  sick  from  three  to  six  weeks,  but  most  of  them 
have  recovered,  and  then  a  part  of  that  time  belongs  to  the  stage 
of  convalescence.  Or  if  the  patients  have  died,  the  duration  of 
the  disease  has  been  protracted  by  relapses. 

"  PREVENTION. 

"  The  measures  of  prevention  consist  in  removing  the  causes  as 
enumerated  above.  If  this  is  done,  no  other  special  treatment  will 
be  required  to  ward  off  the  disease,  and  no  medicine  will  be  needed. 
To  give  medicine  to  a  healthy  animal  is,  under  all  circumstances,  a 
bad  practice,  fraught  with  injury,  and  should  not  be  done,  unless 
it  is  intended  to  destroy  injurious  influences.  To  use  medicine  for 
the  purpose  of  strengthening  the  constitution  of  an  animal,  is  simply 
folly,  as  just  the  opposite  will  be  the  result.  But  to  the  point:  I 
am  confident  the  epizootic  influenza  of  swine,  or  the  disease  im- 
properly called  hog  cholera,  will  cease  to  make  its  appearance,  or,  at 
any  rate,  will  become  a  very  rare  occurrence,  and  will  lose  its  epi- 
zootic character,  if,  first,  every  large  herd  of  swine  is  divided  into 
several  small  herds,  or  lots,  each  containing  about  three  or  four 
animals ;  if,  secondly,  each  lot  is  provided  with  a  comfortable  pen 
or  place  to  sleep  in,  which  is  free  from  filth,  dust,  and  manure,  is 
well  ventilated,  and  provided  with  a  good  roof ;  if,  thirdly,  every 
hog  or  pig  has  access,  several  times  a  day,  or  as  often  as  tempera- 


£70  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

ture,  weather,  and  circumstances  require,  to  fresh  and  <•!< \in  water 
for  drinking  and  bathing,  either  in  a  large  trough  or  in  a  brook, 
creek,  or  streamlet ;  if,  fourthly,  no  filth,  manure,  or  dirt,  is  allowed 
to  accumulate  in  any  of  the  sties,  yards,  hog-lots,  or  pastures,  in 
which  the  hogs  or  pigs  are  kept ;  and  if,  finally,  hogs  and  pigs 
receive  always  a  suitable  variety  of  sound  healthy  food,  whirh  is 
not  soiled  with  dirt  or  manure.  I  know  very  well  soim-  farmer- 
will  be  dissatisfied  with  my  advice,  and  would  have  preferred  in  In- 
sent  to  the  drug  store  for  medicines.  Others  would  think  to  com- 
ply with  my  prescription  will  be  too  much  trouble  altogether,  and 
some  of  them  may  say  :  *  If  we  can  not  keep  our  hogs  any  more  in 
the  old  '  hoggish '  fashion,  but  must  treat  them  like  animals  ought 
to  be  treated,  we  prefer  to  keep  no  hogs  at  all.'  Very  well,  if  they 
do  not  keep  any  hogs,  they  certainly  will  not  lose  any,  anil  their 
neighbors,  who  continue  to  raise  swine,  and  take  proper  <  a P  <>t 
them,  will  be  the  gainers  in  a  two-fold  respect  At  first  they  will 
reap  the  benefit  from  the  scarcity  of  hogs  thus  produced,  and, 
secondly,  they  will  be  amply  repaid  by  their  swine  for  the  care 
bestowed  upon  them.  At  any  rate,  it  will  pay  much  better  for  any 
one  to  raise,  for  instance,  fifty  hogs,  to  keep  them  well  in 
respect,  to  lose  none,  and  to  develop  them  to  first-class  animals, 
(so-called  *  Philadelphia'  hogs),  than  to  raise  100  or  200  head,  to  keep 
them  *  hoggish,'  to  lose  more  than  fifty  to  seventy  per  cent,  and  to 
produce  animals  that  figure  as  *  scalawags'  in  the  market  reports. 
Moreover,  the  amount  of  food  that  is  needed  to  produce  200  pounds 
of  inferior,  and  frequently  unhealthy,  pork — if  the  pig  is  kept  on  a 
manure  heap  in  the  barn-yard,  or  in  any  nasty  hog-lot,  and  in  the 
old  common  way  and  careless  fashion— will  produce  300  pounds  of 
pood  healthy,  and  palatable  pork,  if  the  keeping  of  the  animal  is 
always  in  strict  accordance  with  hygienic  laws.  If  the  latter  are 
never  violated,  the  epizootic  influenza  of  swine,  I  am  sure,  will  not 
make  its  appearance;  but  if  the  mode  of  keeping  swine  is  not 
changed  the  disease  will  increase  in  frequency  and  in  malignancy 
from  year  to  year. 

"  TREATMENT. 

"The  treatment  may  be  divided  into  two  parts— a  hygienic  and 
a  medical  treatment.  The  former  includes  a  removing  of  causes, 
and  is  alike  in  many,  or  even  in  most,  diseases,  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. The  sick  animal  must  be  separated  from  the  herd,  and 
must  be  provided  with  a  clean,  dry,  and  well  ventilated  resting 
place,  which  is  not  exposed  to  drafts  of  air,  and  which  affords 
otherwise  sufficient  protection  against  heat,  cold,  and  wet.  The 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  271 

same,  further,  must  have,  besides  pure  air  to  breathe,  clean  water 
to  drink,  and  healthy  and  easily  digestible  food  to  eat.  If  the  sick 
animals  are  thus  treated,  and  the  causes  promptly  removed,  a  great 
many  sick  animals  (provided,  of  course,  they  are  not  too  far  gone) 
will  be  saved  by  proper  medical  treatment ;  but  if  these  directions 
are  not  complied  with,  even  the  best  medical  treatment  will  be  of 
very  little  avail.  As  to  the  use  of  medicines,  I  would  recommend 
to  give  to  each  patient  at  the  beginning  of  the  disease  a  good 
emetic,  composed  either  of  powdered  White  Hellebore  (Veratrum 
album),  or  of  Tartar  Emetic  in  a  dose  of  about  one  grain  for  each 
month  the  sick  animal  is  old,  if  the  same  is  of  fair  size,  but  not 
exceeding  sixteen  to  twenty  grains,  even  if  the  animal  is  full- 
grown  or  several  years  old.  The  emetic  is  easily  administrated  by 
mixing  it  with  a  piece  of  boiltid  potato,  or,  if  White  Hellebore  is 
chosen,  (which  I  consider  as  preferable),  by  sprinkling  it  on  the 
surface  of  a  small  quantity  of  milk.  Boiled  potato  or  milk  will 
not  be  refused  by  any  hog  unless  the  patient  is  already  very  sick, 
or  far  gone,  and  in  that  case  it  will  be  too  late  to  give  an  emetic. 
After  the  medicine  has  taken  effect,  the  animal  will  appear  to  be 
very  sick,  and  will  try  to  hide  itself  in  a  dark  corner,  but  in  about 
two  or  three  hours  will  make  its  appearance  again,  and  will  be  will- 
ing, in  most  cases  at  least,  to  accept  a  little  choice  food,  for  instance, 
a  boiled  potato,  a  little  milk,  etc.  At  that  time  it  will  be  advisable 
to  give  again  a  small  dose  of  medicine,  consisting  either  of  a  few 
grams  (two  or  three,  to  a  full-grown  animal,  and  to  a  pig  In  pro- 
portion) of  Tartar  Emetic,  or  of  the  same  amount  of  Calomel,  also 
mixed  with  a  piece  of  boiled  potato ;  or,  if  appetite  should  not  have 
returned,  mixed  with  a  pinch  of  flour  and  a  fewr  drops  of  water, 
and  formed  into  small  round  pills.  A  sick  hog,  I  will  remark  here, 
should  not  be  drenched  with  medicine  under  any  circumstances, 
for  a  drench  given  by  force  is  very  apt  to  pass  down  the  windpipe 
into  the  lungs  as  soon  as  the  animal  squeals,  and  frequently  causes 
instant  death.  The  Tartar  Emetic  is  to  be  preferred,  if  the  disease 
has  its  principal  seat  in  the  respiratory  organs,  or  presents  itself 
in  its  catarrhal  rheumatic  form  ;  and  the  Calomel  deserves  prefer- 
ence if  the  gastric,  or  bilious  rheumatic  form  is  prevailing,  and 
especially  if  the  liver  is  seriously  affected.  Either  medicine  may 
be  given  in  such  doses  as  have  been  mentioned,  two  or  three 
times  a  day,  for  several  days  in  succession,  or  till  a  change  for  the 
better  will  be  plainly  visible.  It  may  also  be  advisable  (but  par- 
ticularly if  the  typhoid  character  of  the  disease  is  very  manifested) 
to  mix  for  each  hog  or  pig,  now  and  t^en^  a  few  drops  of  Carbolic 
Acid  with  the  water  for  drinking,  or  with  the  slop.  Animals  that 


272  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

arc  convalescent,  and  have  been  reduced  very  much  by  tin  disease, 
and  are  yet  weak,  should  receive,  mixed  with  their  food,  small 
doses  of  Sulphate  of  Iron,  (copperas),  say  from  five  to  twenty  grains. 
according  to  age  and  size,  but  the  use  of  iron  must  be  discontinue:! 
if  the  patient  becomes  constipated,  or  if  the  excrements  turn  black. 
Those  convalescents  in  which  the  morbid  process  has  produced 
considerable  hepatization  of  the  lungs,  will  be  benefited  by  sjivin^ 
them  repeatedly  small  doses  (from  ten  to  fifty  grains)  of  purified 
Carbonate  of  Potash,  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  the  absorption 
of  the  exudation  deposited  in  the  tissue  of  the  lungs. 

"  Externally,  a  good  counter-irritant,  or  blister,  applied  on  both 
sides  of  the  chest,  and  composed  of  Cantharidcs  or  Spanish  Hi«  s 
and  Oil  (one  ounce  of  the  former  to  four  ounces  of  the  latter  con- 
stitutes the  proportion),  boiled  together  over  a  modi  rate  tin  lot- 
half  an  hour,  or  in  a  water-bath  for  half  an  hour,  will  produce  a 
very  beneficial  result,  especially  in  those  cases  in  which  the  ><-nms 
membranes  of  the  chest  constitute  the  principal  seat  of  the  morbid 
process.  In  most  cases  one  application  will  be  sufficient,  provided 
the  oil  is  thoroughly  rubbed  in  and  the  disease  has  not  made  pro- 
gress too  far.  If  the  first  application  should  fail  to  raise  a  good 
blister  (swelling  and  exudation),  a  second  one  may  be  made  the 
next  day.  In  those  cases,  however,  in  which  the  morbid  process 
has  made  too  much  headway,  or  has  wrought  too  much  destruc- 
tion of  tissue  to  admit  recovery,  the  counter-irritant  will  produce 
no  blister  and  no  swelling  whatever,  a  fact  which  constitutes  a 
valuable  prognostic  symptom,  for  it  indicates  that  the  vitality  of 
the  animal  is  already  very  low,  and  that  a  further  treatment  will 
be  of  no  avail.  Fontanelles  or  Setons  have  nearly  the  same  effect 
as  a  vesicatory  or  fly-blister,  but  act  slower,  and  arc  less  reliable, 
and  may  otherwise  cause  some  damage,  on  account  of  the  typhoid 
character  of  the  disease,  by  weakening  the  constitution  of  the 
animal." 

In  a  communication  from  Dr.  Dctmers,  dated  Novem- 
ber 30th,  1876,  he  says  : 

"  Calling  every  disease  of  swine  '  hog  cholera,'  ha^ 
caused  a  great  deal  of  mischief,  and  the  sooner  that  name 
can  be  abolished  the  better. 

"  Anthrax  diseases  are  entirely  different  from  what  I 
found  in  Missouri,"  [described  in  foregoing  report]. 

"There  is  nothing  in  common  but  the  epizootic  char- 
acter." 


SO-CALLED     HOG    CHOLERA.  273 

CHAPTER    XXV. 
SO-CALLED   "HOG  CHOLERA." 

Dr.  N.  H.  Paaren,  late  State  Veterinarian  of  Illinois, 
in  reference  to  accounts  of  fearful  ravages  of  "Hog 
Cholera"  in  Missouri  and  Illinois,  writes  as  follows  in 
regard  to  this  much  dreaded  scourge  : 

«  *  *  *  The  different  forms  in  which  anthrax  fever  develops  itself, 
manifest  different  symptoms,  among  which  the  following  are  some 
of  the  most  prevalent  :  The  animals  suddenly  appear  dull,  sepa- 
rating themselves  from  the  herd ;  and  totally  refusing  food  and 
water,  they  seek  dark  places,  or  dig  themselves  beneath  the  litter, 
or  into  the  ground.  Symptoms  of  colic  and  a  disposition  to  rest 
on  the  belly  are  amongst  the  signs  indicating  abdominal  pain. 
Diarrhoea  soon  sets  in  ;  also  occasional  violent  retching  and  vomit- 
ing. The  animal  is  not  able  to  move  freely,  on  account  of  weak- 
ness in  the  hind  quarters — it  staggers,  and  at  last,  paralyzed,  it  can- 
not move.  Deglutition  is  interfered  with,  and  the  breathing  is 
difficult.  Painful  swellings  occur  around  the  throat,  extending 
downwards  to  the  chest,  which  swelling  is  hard,  hot,  and  painful. 
There  is  also  frothing  at  the  mouth  and  a  painful  cough,  and  ap- 
pearance of  boils.  Sometime  before  death  a  discoloration  of  the 
skin  appears  on  the  neck,  the  ears,  the  back,  under  the  belly,  or 
the  inside  of  the  hind  extremities,  which  discoloration,  from  being 
at  the  beginning  of  a  bright-red  or  purple  color,  at  the  last  stages 
of  the  disease  attains  a  dark-bluish  or  black  color.  The  visible 
membranes  of  the  mouth  and  nose  attain  a  dark  livid  color,  and 
the  mucous  membranes  of  the  eyelids  and  the  white  front  of  the 
eye  become  dark-red.  Death  occurs  often  very  suddenly,  and  in 
most  cases  within  twelve  hours  to  two  or  three  days.  Recovery 
is  seldom,  and  generally  veiy  slow,  if  ever  complete. 

"  Post-mortem  examinations  reveal,  in  all  cases,  the  most  un- 
mistakable signs  of  the  true  nature  of  this  disease.  Putrefaction 
sets  in  very  quickly.  The  membranes  of  the  nose,  mouth,  and 
rectum,  are  of  a  dark  color.  Dark  bloody  fluid  is  often  observed 
to  ooze  from  the  nose  and  the  rectum.  The  capillaries  and  small 
veins  of  the  skin,  as  also  the  tissue  under  the  skin,  are  of  a  dark 
color,  and  overfilled  with  dark  blood.  The  bacon,  diminished  in 


274  SWINE    IIUSIIANDUY. 

quantity,  is  soft,  sometimes  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  blood-stained. 
In  animals  that  die  suddenly,  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cor  1  are 
found  overfilled  with  blood.     On  opening  the  abdominal  cavity,  a 
most  disagreeable  and  fetid  odor  escapes;   the  stomach,  tli    in- 
testines, the  liver,  and  the  spleen,  are  overfilled  with  bloo  1  and 
yellow  serum.    The  spleen,  especially,  is  large,  soft,  of  a  dark 
color,  and  overfilled  with  blood  ;   and  the  organs  of  the  che>t  ar 
congested  or  studded  with  blood  spots.     The  blood  is  in  a  st 
dissolution,  is  of  a  very  dark  color,  and  does  not  coagulate  perfectly. 

The  causes  of  the  disease  are  obscure;  but  as  it  is  more  pi<-va- 
lent  in  low  and  undrained  localities  than  on  high  and  \vcll-draim -d 
soil,  it  is  considered  to  be  due  mainly  to  miasmatic  and  malarious 
emanations.  Confinement  in  filthy  sties,  impure  drinking  water, 
and  want  of  change  in  food,  etc.,  arc  also  amongst  the  ctOMB, 
We  are  convinced  that  many  animals  of  this  class  are  annually 
lost  from  the  effects  of  improper  fool,  or  from  living  in  an  at  n«>- 
phcre  surcharged  with  poisonous  effluvia,  the  product  of  animal 
or  vegetable  decomposition.  Decomposing  substance-,  both  anidial 
and  vegetable,  corn  that  has  undergone  a  change  from  long  keep- 
ing or  exposure  to  damp,  and  which  is  loaded,  perhaps,  with  the 
sporules  of  poisonous  fungi,  brine  from  the  meat  tub — the 
other  similar  substances  are  often  given  to  pigs  as  food,  and  in 
many  instances  have  been  known  to  cause  very  great  losses. 
Much  that  we  have  seen  convinces  us  of  the  necessity  of  more 
attention  being  paid  to  the  quality  of  the  food  of  these  an'm.ds 
than  is  generally  being  done,  and  also  to  the  nature  of  their  lodg- 
ings, as  well  as  the  air  they  breathe. 

*'  The  treatment  is  most  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  the  acute  nature 
of  the  disease;  in  fact,  all  remedies  are  useless  when  not  admin- 
istered as  soon  as  the  3rst  symptoms  appear.  When  the  disease 
breaks  out  in  a  herd,  the  animals  should  be  kept  on  low  diet,  have 
plenty  of  exercise  and  fresh  air.  In  the  early  stage  of  the  disease 
cold  water  sluicings,  often  repeated,  have  proved  beneficial,  and, 
so  has  the  method  of  burying  in  the  earth  in  a  cool  and  dark 
place.  For  this  purpose  a  hole  is  dug,  sufficiently  large  and  deep 
to  admit  Mr.  Pork  sidewise,  (the  legs  being  previously  tied  with  a 
soft  straw  band) ;  the  body  is  then  covered  with  a  sufficient  quanti- 
ty of  earth  and  grass  turf,  leaving  tlie  head  free;  and  in  order  to 
support  the  head,  a  grass  turf  is  laid  under  the  snout.  Before 
burial,  several  injections,  consisting  of  cold  water  with  vinegar, 
are  thrown  into  the  rectum.  In  order  to  keep  the  surrounding 
earth  constantly  cool,  cold  water  is,  every  half  hour,  to  be  let  on 
it  The  animal  remains  thus  buried  until  it  recovers,  which,  in 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  275 

successful  cases,  happens  within  six,  twelve,  or  eighteen  hours. 
Hog  cholera  is  treated  in  many  different  ways,  each  having  its 
advocates ;  some  people  have  seen  good  effects  from  bleeding  in 
the  earliest  stages  of  this  disease.  Emetics  and  purgatives,  in 
connection  with  lukewarm  injections  of  salt  water  with  vinegar, 
are  very  strongly  recommended.  In  the  beginning  of  the  disease, 
success  has  also  attended  the  administration  of  an  emetic,  such  as 
White  Hellebore  and  Ipecacuanha,  of  each  two  parts;  Tartar  Emetic 
one  part ;  mix  and  give  a  small  pig  a  scruple,  and  a  larger  one 
half  a  drachm,  thrown  dry  upon  the  root  of  the  tongue ;  this  to 
be  followed  up  by  purgatives  and  clysters.  Purgative  to  consist 
of  Epsom  Salts,  one,  two  or  three  ounces,  according  to  the  size, 
and  age  of  the  animal,  administered  in  broth  or  swill  from  a 
bottle.  Exercise,  fresh  air,  and  sluicing  the  animal  over  with 
cold  water  are  measures  to  be  recommended.  Animals  that  re- 
cover, unless  well  treated,  continue  to  suffer  from  partial  paralysis, 
or  from  rheumatic  inflammation  of  the  joints. 

"As  'an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  more  than  a  pound  of 
cure,'  a  few  remarks  concerning  this  may  not  be  out  of  place. 
First  of  all,  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  all  causes  of  this  malady. 
Never  keep  sick  and  sound  animals  together ;  adopt  remote 
separation  and  close  watching.  Keep  the  animals  on  spare  allow- 
ance of  well-cooked  animal  food,  wholesome  diet,  fresh  and  clear 
water,  fresh  air  and  good  litter ;  in  fact,  cleanliness  in  every  re- 
spect is  the  best  preventive  against  the  disease.  A  few  large 
pieces  of  rock  salt,  as  well  as  charcoal,  should  be  kept  in  the  hog 
pen.  Let  the  hogs  have  plenty  of  fresh  water,  but  never  run 
them  to  and  from  watering.  Don't  compel  your  hogs  to  drink 
snow  water,  if  better  water  is  procurable.  In  hot  summer  time, 
keep  the  hogs  under  shelter  during  the  hottest  hours  of  the  day, 
especially  if  hog  cholera  is  prevailing ;  during  which  hours,  if 
practicable,  and  after  the  hogs  are  cooled  off,  give  them  a  good 
sluicing  with  cold  water,  which  repeat  before  letting  them  out  in 
the  afternoon.  Unripe  fruit  and  sour  milk  and  water  is  a  good 
diet  in  hot  weather,  but  the  hogs  should  not  be  given  more  than 
they  can  eat  at  one  meal.  Besides  this,  it  is  advisable,  where  and 
when  hog  cholera  exists,  to  give  an  occasional  emetic.  During  an 
existing  epidemic,  let  them  vomit  every  eight  days.  The  best 
emetic  for  the  hog  is  White  Hellebore,  of  which  give  each  hog, 
according  to  its  size,  from  ten  to  twenty  grains  finely  powdered. 
It  is  best  given  in  the  morning,  early,  before  feeding.  Mix  the 
doses  for  each  hog  in  a  bucket,  with  some  sour  milk,  and  let  him 
drink  it.  During  that  day  keep  the  hogs  at  home,  under  shelter, 


276  SWINE    HUSBANPRY. 

and  feed  sparingly  with  some  sour  milk  or  unripe  fruit.  As  it  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance  to  keep  the  bowels  in  good  order,  give 
occasionally  some  Saltpetre  in  the  drinking  water  during  the  fol- 
lowing seven  days;  and — let  us  repeat  it — the  hogs  must  havr 
plenty  of  fresh  and  clean  water.  Prevention  by  cleanliness  and 
comfort,  release  from  restraint  of  pens,  and  the  use  of  salt,  tar. 
coal,  ashes,  sulphur,  etc.,  have  numerous  testimonials  of  efficacy. 
"  When  a  destructive  disease  threatens  the  animals,  and,  through 
them,  the  most  valuable  section  of  our  national  wealth,  it  should 
be  the  duty  of  all  concerned  to  obey  the  dictates  of  science  and 
experience  in  order  to  avert  danger  and  loss.  But  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  to  obtain  successful  results  individual  efforts  go  for 
little.  It  is  on  the  strict  observancs  of  sanitary  laws,  and  to  the 
wise  measures  prescribed  by  authority,  that  reliance  must  be 
placed.  In  the  words  of  an  eminent  medical  writer,  *  The  day  has 
gone  past  for  an  isolated  individual  or  craft  to  avert  pestilence,  as 
Empedocles  did  when  he  shut  out  the  sirocco  by  stopping  a  moun- 
tain-gap, and  removed  intermittent  fevers  by  changing  the  course 
of  the  river  Hypsa.'  These  large  and  beneficient  operations  are 
in  our  day  reserved  for  Governments;  and  our  duty  is  to  ur^ 
upon  Government,  by  means  of  our  governing  bodies,  the  necessity 
of  undertaking  the  prevention  of  epidemic  diseases,  both  among 
men  and  animals,  to  point  out  the  best  modes  of  securing  this 
prevention,  and  to  see  that  these  measures,  when  become  law,  arc 
properly  carried  out.  The  prevention  of  epizootic  diseases  among 
our  domestic  animals  should  be  regarded  as  a  political  question, 
involving  more  or  less  the  well-being  of  the  whole  community ; 
not  merely  affecting  those  who  own  or  who  endeavor  to  derive 
profit  from  rearing  animals,  but  also  affecting  the  public  at  large, 
as  regards  health,  the  supply  of  food,  and  other  essentials.  In  the 
extension  of  a  disease  of  this  kind,  not  only  is  there  loss  to  the 
individuals  who  possess  the  animals,  but  also  to  the  public,  who 
have  not  only  a  diminished  quantity  or  more  expensive  supply  of 
food,  but  also  often  incur  the  risk  of  obtaining  it  of  an  inferior  or 
injurious  quality,  or  are  otherwise  inconvenienced. 

Almost  all  the  diseases  of  swine  seem  to  be  popularly  resolved 
into  *  hog  cholera.'  Of  all  diseases  of  domestic  animals,  those  of 
this  genus  are  evidently  less  thoroughly  understood  than  those  of 
any  other  farm  stock.  Ideas  on  the  subject  are  in  a  singular  state 
of  confusion,  and  remedies  are  countless  in  number,  and  most  in- 
congruous in  character.  If  the  symptoms  were  accurately  noted, 
it  would  probably  be  found  that  several  kinds  of  '  hog  cholera ' 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  277 

every  prevalent  disease  of  the  hog  appears  to  be  called — are 
uniting  in  the  mischief  produced. 

Agricultural  stock  suffers  serious  neglect.  We  venture  to  assert 
that  ninety  per  cent  of  the  domestic  animals  of  the  farm  which 
suffer  from  disease  throughout  the  United  States  annually,  are 
never  seen  by  Veterinary  Surgeons.  It  is  most  singular  that  the 
Americans,  who  have  manifested  the  greatest  activity  in  the  pro- 
motion of  science  and  the  useful  arts,  have  never  been  able  to 
found  a  thoroughly  efficient  Veterinary  College.  We  number 
among  ourselves  but  few  Veterinarians ;  and  most  of  them — we 
may  say  nearly  all — have  been  induced  to  leave  Europe.  Is  it  to 
be  wondered  at  that  our  live  stock  are  cut  down  by  disease  in  a 
most  disastrous  manner  ?  Is  it  to  be  wondered  at  that  we  arc  now 
asking  how  we  may  remedy  an  evil  which  is  found  to  be  of  far 
greater  importance  than  we  ever  before  imagined  ? 

Indeed,  the  ignorance  of  those  who  hold  foremost  positions 
amongst  us  on  the  subject  of  the  amount  of  disease  hi  the  country 
—  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  especially — can  only  be  expl  .in- 
ed  by  the  fact  that  if  we  do  not  search  for  information  regarding 
mortality  amongst  stock,  we  are  not  in  the  way  of  gleaning  it  at 
all.  Disease  is  raging  frightfully  without  intermission.  Truth 
must  prevail  in  the  end,  and  no  better  conformation  of  what  we 
have  said  can  be  obtained  than  that  derived  from  the  state  of 
anxiety  and  alarm  which  now  exists  throughout  many  portions  of 
our  country,  where  mortality  amongst  stock  is  among  the  daily 
records  of  our  newspapers  the  whole  year  round. 

Examples  and  estimates,  after  all,  give  but  a  slender  idea  of  the 
devastation,  misery,  embarrassment  and  loss  that  has  been,  and  is 
due,  in  very  great  measure,  to  the  ignorance,  apathy  and  neglect 
shown  by  those  in  authority.  We  speak  but  the  sentiment  of  the 
stock  owners  and  breeders  of  the  country,  when  we  express  our 
earnest  regret  that  the  Department  of  Agriculture  pays  so  little 
attention  to  the  investigation  of  the  causes  and  character  of  the 
diseases  of  our  domestic  animals,  in  which  the  interests  of  all 
classes  of  agriculturists  are  so  largely  concerned.  In  view  of  the 
great  importance  of  this  matter,  the  great  interests  at  stake,  and 
the  prevalence  of  epidemic  diseases  among  our  domestic  animals 
throughout  this  vast  country,  it  is  simply  astonishing  that  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  contents  itself  with  gathering  in  the 
statistics  of  mortality,  utterly  neglecting  the  most  important  ob- 
ject of  recommending  or  providing  remedial  means,  or  institute 
proper  scientific  investigations  for  the  benefit  of  the  sufferers  and 
the  public  at  large." 


278  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

James  Law,  Professor  of  Veterinary  science  in  Cornell 
University,  gives  the  following  as  the  causes,  symptoms, 
and  treatment  of  hog  cholera. 

44  The  period  of  incubation  is  from  seven  to  fourteen  days,  but 
is  less  in  a  hot  climate. 

"  Causes. — Contagion,  privation,  starvation,  confinement,  fiJth,  etc. 

11  Symptoms. — General  ill  health,  shivering,  fever,  great  dullness, 
prostrating  fever,  hides  under  litter,  lies  on  belly,  weakness  of 
hind  limbs,  and  later  of  the  fore  limbs,  rapid,  weak  pulse,  dry 
snout  covered  by  blood-stained  spots,  which  also  cover  the  skin, 
eyes,  etc.,  often  a  hard  cough,  little  or  no  appetite,  intense  thirst, 
tender  abdomen.  After  death,  blood-staining  infiltrations  into 
lungs  and  bowels,  ulcers  on  bowels. 

Treatment. — Give  cooling,  acid  drinks,  Buttermilk,  Sulphuric 
Acid,  etc. ;  feed  soft,  mucilaginous  food,  such  as  Oil-cake.  Ad- 
minister twenty  drops  of  Perchloride  of  Iron  twice  a  day.  Blister 
the  abdomen  by  means  of  Mustard  and  Turpentine ;  stimulate  if 
very  prostrate. 

"  Prevention. — Avoid  all  debilitating  conditions,  poor  or  spoiled 
food ;  keep  animals  constantly  thriving.  Feed  Charcoal  or  Ashes, 
•lan  Tar  or  Carbolic  Acid.  Avoid  contact  with  disease.  Burn  in- 
fected piggeries  and  remove  to  a  new  place." 

In  further  comments  on  the  disease  Prof.  Law  says  : 

"  Examples,  which  might  be  very  greatly  extended,  imply  that 
a  sound  mixed  diet  is  of  great  importance  in  maintaining  a  healthy 
activity  of  the  various  organic  functions,  and  a  vigor  to  a  large 
extent  antagonistic  to  this  and  other  diseases,  and  that  a  somewhat 
similar  immunity  may  be  secured  by  the  use  of  tonics,  antiscep- 
tics,  and  gently  stimulating  agents.  But  if  we  rest  our  faith  upon 
any  or  all  of  these  as  sure  cures  or  preventives,  we  shall  only  pave 
the  way  for  disappointment  whenever  the  disease  takes  on  an  un- 
usually malignant  type.  Thus,  in  spite  of  the  protective  power 
of  a  partially  milk  diet,  as  above  mentioned,  how  often  does  the 
disease  prevail  most  disastrously  in  the  herds  of  cheese  and  butter 
factories,  and,  notwithstanding  the  good  effects  of  an  occasional 
meal  of  flesh,  we  find  the  most  extensive  losses  among  pigs  that 
are  largely  carnivorous,  (flesh  eating),  in  their  habits. 

"  Keep  your  hogs  clean  is  good  advice.  Protect  them  from  the 
hot,  reeking  bed  of  manure  and  close  sleeping  place,  where  the 
emanations  from  decomposing  dung,  urine,  straw  and  other  organic 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  279 

matter  are  added  to  those  of  their  own  skins  and  lungs  when 
huddled  together  in  great  numbers.  See  that  both  food  and  water 
are  clean,  in  the  sense  of  being  free  from  disease  germs,  and  from 
the  microscopic  particles  of  decomposing  organic  matter,  which, 
within  the  system  as  well  as  outside  of  it,  furnish  appropriate  food 
for  the  disease,  poison,  and  favor  its  increase,  while  they  depress 
the  vital  powers  and  lessen  the  chances  of  the  virus  being  thrown 
off.  No  less  important  is  the  purity  of  the  air,  since  the  delicate 
membrane  of  the  lungs,  perhaps  more  than  any  other,  furnishes 
an  easy  mode  of  entrance  for  any  injurious  external  matter.  Final- 
ly, purity  of  the  blood  can  only  be  maintained  by  a  healthy 
functional  activity  of  all  the  vital  organs,  which  insures  the  per- 
fect elaboration  of  every  plastic  constituent  of  the  blood,  and  the 
excretion  of  all  waste  matters  that  have  already  served  their  pur- 
pose in  the  system.  By  perfect  cleanliness,  the  poison,  even  if  gen- 
erated or  introduced,  will  be  virtually  starved  out  as  surely  as  an 
army  in  a  closely  besieged  fortress.  But  it  will  be  observed  that 
this  implies  the  separation  of  sound  from  diseased  animals,  and  the 
free  use  of  disinfectants,  (solutions  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  chloride 
of  lime,  fumes  of  burning  sulphur,  etc.),  to  purify  the  air  and  other 
surrounding  objects,  as  well  as  the  simple  clearing  away  of  filth.  And 
it  is  here  that  the  pork-raisers  are  most  frequently  at  fault.  Fifty 
or  a  hundred  pigs  are  allowed  to  crowd  together  in  a  filthy  manure 
heap,  a  rotten  straw  stack,  or  under  a  barn  subjected  to  the  drop- 
pings of  other  animals,  as  well  as  their  own  products.  Their 
feeding  troughs  and  drinking  water  are  so  supplied  that  they  can 
get  into  them  with  their  filthy  feet,  and  they  must  devour  the 
most  obnoxious  matter  or  starve.  If,  under  this  abuse,  disease  is 
developed,  the  healthy  are  left  with  the  sick,  as  *  they  will  all  have 
it  any  way,'  and  the  result  is  usually  a  clean  sweep.  When  hog 
cholera  exists,  the  sick  should  be  placed  by  themselves  under  a 
special  attendant,  and  under  the  free  use  of  disinfectants  ;  the 
healthy  should  be  carefully  watched,  and  on  the  first  sign  of  ill- 
ness, as  increased  temperature,  to  be  ascertained  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  clinical  thermometer  into  the  rectum,  they  should  be  at 
once  taken  from  the  herd  and  carefully  secluded.  This,  with 
active  disinfection,  will  enable  the  owner  to  cut  short  an  outbreak, 
and  save  perhaps  the  great  majority  of  an  already  infected  herd, 
Again,  the  sale  of  animals  from  an  infected  stock,  to  be  removed 
from  the  premises  alive,  should  be  severely  punished,  and  the  dis- 
infection of  the  buildings  where  the  sick  have  been,  should  be 
made  imperative.  We  shall  obtain  the  greatest  success  with  this 
disease  when  we  treat  it  as  a  contagious  malady,  and  whenever  it 


280  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

is  found  to  exist,  give  our  main  attention  to  prevent  the  further 
generation  and  dissemination  of  the  poison." 

The  following  is  collated  from  the  correspondence  of 
the  Prairie  Farmer,  and  coming  direct  from  men  em- 
phatically practical,  it  is  well  worthy  consideration.  Mr. 
John  S.  Bowles,  of  Hamilton,  Ohio,  writing  to  that 
journal  in  November,  1872,  for  information  about  Hog 
Cholera,  says  s 

"  I  will  now  describe  the  disease  of  which  my  hogs  arc  dying, 
and  of  which  a  great  portion  of  the  hogs  in  this  vicinity  are  also 
dying. 

14  The  first  symptom  is  a  dullness  or  sleepiness  in  the  actions  of 
the  hog.  He  walks  to  his  food  instead  of  running.  He  holds  his 
head  down  within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  ground,  and  should 
he  raise  it,  he  holds  it  slightly  to  one  side.  He  eats  his  food  us 
though  he  had  no  appetite  for  it  He  does  not  lie  down  with  his 
fellow  hogs,  but  mopes  about,  lying  by  himself,  often  in  the  sun 
instead  of  the  shade.  After  the  disease  progresses  a  little,  the  hog 
refuses  to  cat  altogether.  His  ears  swell.  Sometimes  a  little  pur- 
ple-colored blood  will  run  from  his  nose.  Sometimes,  but  not  in 
the  majority  of  cases,  he  will  have  a  diarrhoea.  If  he  is  a  while 
hog,  his  ears  and  the  lower  part  of  his  throat  and  between  his 
fore  legs  turn  to  a  purple  hue.  Sometimes  he  dies  in  two  days,  and 
sometimes  he  lingers  for  two  weeks.  The  latter  part  of  his  illness 
he  heaves  at  his  flanks,  having  what  is  called  the  *  Thumps.'  He 
is  also  very  weak  in  his  hind  quarters.  When  he  is  driven  up  he 
starts  with  a  squeal,  as  tho'igh  much  frightened,  and  runs  off  reel- 
ing on  his  hind  legs,  with  his  nose  nearly  down  to  the  ground. 

"  This  season  is  the  first  one  I  have  ever  been  troubled  with  hog 
cholera,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  the  disease  originated 
on  my  own  farm. 

"There  were  diseased  hogs  all  through  the  neighborhood  for 
two  months  previous  to  mine  taking  the  disease,  but  I  do  not  think 
mine  had  any  contact  with  any  of  them,  or  in  fact  with  any  hogs 
but  their  fellows. 

"  The  disease  broke  out  in  my  hogs  in  a  field  which  has  a  stream 
of  spring  water  running  through  it.  It  is  an  old  sugar  camp,  nine- 
tenths  cleared,  but  the  hogs  could  be  in  the  shade  all  the  time  if 
they  wished. 

"  The  rest  of  the  ficlil,  rrVro  thero  were  no  sugar  trees,  is  a  clover 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  281 

pasture.  There  was  no  filthy  beds,  or  pens,  or  bad  water  in  the 
case — on  the  contrary,  quite  the  reverse. 

"  At  the  same  time  I  had  44  hogs  taken  from  the  same  lot  as 
these  store  hogs,  that  were  in  three  board  pens,  side  by  side.  These 
Logs  were  being  fed  all  the  old  corn  they  would  eat,  and  had  been 
up  about  three  weeks  when  the  others  took  the  cholera.  Although 
they  lay  considerably  in  their  own  filth,  and  had  a  large  manure 
heap  on  one  side  of  them,  none  of  them  took  the  cholera ;  for  four 
weeks  it  broke  out  among  their  adjoining  fellows,  and  until  18 
of  them  had  died.  Now  one  (only),  of  the  fattening  hogs  is  sick. 

"  The  hogs  in  which  the  disease  broke  out  had  been  on  clover 
pasture,  alone,  during  the  early  part  of  the  summer.  As  I  had 
more  hogs  than  clover,  I  soon  fed  them  three  ears  of  corn  per  day, 
each.  After  harvest,  I  turned  the  hogs  on  the  wheat  and  barley 
stubble,  and  quit  feeding  them  corn.  When  the  stubble  gave  out, 
I  commenced  feeding  the  hogs  three  stalks  of  grain  corn  per  day 
each,  corn  being  just  out  of  the  milk. 

"  There  was  then  abundance  of  clover  pasture  as  all  my  stub- 
bles were  sown  with  clover.  I  wanted,  however,  to  keep  my  hogs 
in  the  same  condition  they  were  until  my  new  crop  of  corn  was 
sufficiently  ripened  to  feed  them  for  fattening. 

"  In  about  two  weeks  they  commenced  dying,  and  out  of  about 
99,  averaging  160  to  170  pounds,  I  have  lost  19,  and  several  more 
are  sick.  Thinking  the  green  corn  had  something  to  do  with  the 
disease,  I  sold  41  of  the  healthiest  to  a  neighboring  distillery,  and 
went  to  feeding  the  remainder  with  dry  old  corn.  They  seem  to 
do  better  since  I  changed  their  diet — that  is,  they  do  not  die  so  fast. 

11 1  have  an  idea  that  green  corn,  second  growth  clover,  etc.,  have 
a  tendency  to  excite  the  disease,  though  I  think  the  primary  cause 
is  something  similar  to  malaria. 

"  Can  you  give  me  any  information  on  the  subject? 

"N.  B.— Besides  the  19  hogs,  averaging  160  Ibs.,  I  have  lost 
about  20  spring  pigs,  and  30  odd  sucking  pigs." 

In  a  later  issue,  "  A.  M.  W.,"  of  Odin,  Illinois,  says  : 

"In  your  issue  of  last  Saturday  is  a  communication  asking  the 
experience  and  advice  of  other  farmers  as  to  hog  cholera.  I  have 
been  keeping  hogs  ever  since  the  disease  first  began  to  be  heard  of 
in  the  West,  have  been  cleaned  out  several  tunes  by  it,  and  there- 
fore gladly  communicate  something  of  what  I  know  about  it.  The 
symptoms  he  describes  arc  exactly  the  same  that  I  understand  to 
indicate  hog  cholera.  My  hogs  have  taken  it  when  they  had 
free  access  to  the  woods  and  hazle-brush,  and  all  (with  the  excep- 


282  SWINE   HUSBANDRY. 

tion  of  a  few  old  brood  sows)  have  gradually  died  off.  Thou  airuin 
they  have  had  the  disease  when  confined  to  the  fields,  not  clover, 
but  stubble  and  timothy  meadows,  and  it  has  generally  < •ommenced 
its  attack  soon  after  harvest,  and  wus  the  most  fatal  about  ilu  time 
the  most  green  corn  was  fed,  though  I  don't  think  the  corn  had 
anything  to  do  with  it. 

"Now  for  the  remedies.  I  have  been  clear  of  it  for  several 
years,  and  for  two  years  before  that  time,  I  stopped  its  rav.i 
once  by  administering  a  prescription  that  was  published  in  your 
paper.  After  stopping  the  disease  with  that  medicine  the  second 
time,  I  saw  again  in  The  Farmer  a  prescription  recommended  as  a 
preventive,  and  have  used  that  since  according  to  direction >.  an  1 
have  had  no  symptoms  of  hog  cholera  in  my  herd.  I  don't  atlinn 
that  either  is  a  specific,  but  such,  as  related,  were  the  ivsnlis; 
hence,  of  course,  I  have  great  faith  in  the  medicine,  and  have  no 
fears  of  cholera  now  in  raising  hogs.  There  may  be  others  of  your 
readers  who  have  had  experience  with  those  medicines.  If  tiny 
have  failed  or  otherwise,  they  would  certainly  do  their  brother 
farmers  a  favor  by  communicating  the  fart.  I  have  the  recipe  for 
the  cure  in  my  scrap  book,  cut  from  The  Prairie  Farmer  at  the 
time,  to  date.  It  is :  Sulphur,  2  Iba. ;  Copperas,  2  ll»s. ;  M adder.  2 
Ibs.;  Black  Antimony,  }  Ib. ;  Saltpetre,  |  Ib. ;  Arsenic,  2  oz.  The 
quantity  is  sufficient  for  100  hogs,  and  is  mixed  with  slop  enough 
for  a  few  doses  all  round — a  pint  to  each  hog.  Each  time  I  tried 
this,  I  had  about  50  head,  and  not  one  died  that  was  able  to  walk 
to  the  trough  and  had  enough  life  left  to  drink. 

"  The  preventive  was  published  by  Prof.  J.  B.  Turner,  in  1862, 
in  The  Prairie  Farmer,  and  then  again  two  years  or  more  ago  he 
sent  you  the  same  recipe  with  some  characteristic  remarks,  affirm- 
ing his  continued  reliance  on  its  efficacy,  which  you  published  at 
the  time.  The  paper  was  mislaid,  and  I  wrote  to  Mr.  T.,and  here 
is  his 

Reripe.—One  peck  of  Wood-ashes,  four  pounds  Salt,  one  pound 
Black  Antimony,  ono  pound  Copperas,  one  pound  Sulphur,  quarter- 
pound  Siltpotr?.  Pound  and  mix  thoroughly;  moisten  enough  to 
prevent  waste;  put  in  a  trough  in  a  dry  place  where  the  hogs  can 
at  all  times  eat  just  as  much  as  they  please  of  it  If  predisposed 
to  cholera,  they  will  eat  it  very  freely,  and  it  will  make  something 
*>f  an  item  of  expense,  for  a  time ;  at  other  times  they  will  eat 
less,  or  perhaps  none  at  all." 

Some  time  after  the  appearance  of  the  above  letter,  Mr. 
John  G.  Dutrich,  of  Normal,  Illinois,  wrote  : 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  283 

"  In  The  Farmer  of  December  14, 1872,  there  was  an  article  on 
hog  cholera,  written  and  sent  to  you  by  A.  M.  W.,  of  Odin,  111. 
It  came  to  me  just  in  time  to  save  my  lot  of  one  hundred  shotes 
and  lions,  and  a  nicer  lot  of  the  former  could  not  have  been  found 
in  the  country  a  week  before  the  article  reached  me.  But  that 
week  took  out  about  fifteen  of  the  choice  ones.  I  will  only  say 
that  I  used  the  remedy  as  soon  as  I  could  get  it,  and  have  only  lost 
one  by  cholera  since,  and  that  one  would  not  drink." 

Respecting  the  preventive,  the  venerable  Prof.  Turner 
himself,  says  : 

"  I  know  of  no  one  who  has  had  any  hog  cholera  of  account 
from  that  day,  (1862),  who  has  persistently  made  use  of  it  in 
advance  of  the  appearance  of  disease.  I  have  heard  of  hogs  being 
actually  cured,  after  disease  sets  in,  by  being  scrubbed  all  over 
daily  with  Copperas  water  moderately  strong. 

"  Hogs  should  at  all  times  be  supplied  with  stone  coal,  as  they 
will  then  eat  less  of  the  above  mixture,  and  be  less  expense." 

Mr.  A.  C.  Moore,  the  eminent  Illinois  breeder  of 
Poland-Chinas,  says,  in  his  Swine  Journal: 

"  Of  this  disease,  which  has  proved  so  fatal,  at  different  times 
within  the  last  twelve  years,  in  nearly  every  locality,  especially  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  much  has  been  said,  and  much  written. 
Many  believe  the  inciting  causes  are  to  be  found  in  the  want  of 
some  mineral  elements  in  the  soil  of  this  great,  once-submerged 
valley ;  but  there  ara  many  theories  as  to  its  causes,  and  all  of  them 
arc  more  or  less  substantiated  by  facts.  It  stems  to  present  itself 
at  different  times  and  places,  under  varying  symptoms.  The  first 
indications  differ. 

"  Though  I  have  never  had  a  case  of  this  scourge  among  my  hogs, 
I  have  carefully  examined  the  first  appearances  on  several  occa- 
sions when  it  has  visited  neighboring  yards  and  farms.  The  first 
symptoms  that  I  have  seen,  in  cases  considered  to  be  cholera,  were 
these :  the  eyes  looked  hollow,  and  deep  set  in  the  head  ;  the  hair 
seemed  to  raise,  or  rou^h  up ;  there  was  a  gathering  of  a  dark- 
looking  substance  in  the  inner  corner  of  the  eye ;  these  were  fol- 
lowed by  the  skin  looking  rough  and  scaly,  and  of  a  dark-red  color; 
then  came  vomiting  and  diarrhoea,  more  or  less  frequent,  according 
to  the  violence  of  the  attack.  In  many  cases,  there  is  a  short  and 
very  difficult  breathing,  the  head  droops  or  is  held  to  one  side,  and 
a  cough  shows  itself ;  the  cough  being  peculiar  in  this — that  the 
animal  stops  to  cough,  and  puts  his  nose  quite  near  to  the  ground, 


284  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

in  fact,  it  seems  as  though  he  could  not  cough  while  walking,  as 
is  usually  done  with  a  common  cough.  The  hog  steins  indisposed 
to  move,  is  stiff  and  'drawn  up.'  There  are  other  morbid  condi- 
tions which  are  ascribed  to  cholera,  but  the  truth  seems  to  be  that 
these  conditions  vary  so  much,  and  the  indications  or  first  symptoms 
are  so  different,  that  I  am  compelled  to  believe  that  there  are  many 
ailments  called  cholera  that  are  not  cholera.  It  is  therefore  that 
so  many  quack  nostrums  can  get  certificates  of  cure  from  farmers, 
whose  stock  has  perhaps  been  cured,  but  cured  from  what?  They 
believe  it  cholera,  and  so  certify,  but  when  the  same  n  medy  is 
given  to  a  herd  that  actually  have  that  disease,  then  it  fails ;  such 
failure  is  not  usually  reported  beyond  the  immediate  neigh borhood. 

"  I  know  it  does  not  matter  to  the  loser  what  the  disease  may  be 
called  that  takes  away  his  herd,  so  far  as  his  loss  is  concerned,  but 
until  the  observing  and  scientific  world  have  more  agreement  as  to 
the  causes  and  conditions  of  this  dread  disease,  it  may  be  in  vain 
that  we  proclaim  any  remedy  to  be  a  specific  cure.  In  case  of  ac- 
tual attack  from  this  disease,  (having  no  experience,)  I  should  at 
once  conclude  that,  so  far  as  the  diseased  animal  was  concerned,  the 
preventives  and  conditions  hereinafter  named,  had  not  reached  the 
individual  case,  cither  from  my  neglect  to  provide  them  at  all,  or 
in  sufficient  quantities,  and  1  would  apply  them  at  once,  with  thor- 
oughness. I  would  also  give  an  ounce  of  Carbolic  Acid,  well  dis- 
solved, and  mixed  in  slop  for  every  twenty-five  head  of  my  herd, 
and  repeat  this  dose  every  two  or  three  days,  carefully  noting 
conditions  and  changes.  Above  all  things,  remove  an  affected  hog 
at  the  first  positive  symptoms,  to  a  3rard  or  pen,  if  not  by  himself, 
at  least  entirely  separated  from  the  well  hogs.  Dispose  of  every 
carcass  at  once,  and  remove  all  filth  of  an  infectious  nature.  If  it 
be  true,  as  claimed  by  some,  that  there  is  no  gpcnfic  remedy  for  this 
disease,  it  certainly  follows  that  the  'ounce  of  prevention'  must 
be  thoroughly  applied. 

"  For  all  general  purposes  of  health,  and  as  a  preventive  from  dis- 
ease, I  have,  for  many  years,  used  the  following  mixture  with  uni- 
form and  marked  benefit.  Take  1  bushel  Charcoal,  small  pieces ;  3 
bushels  Wood -ashes;  |  bushel  slacked  Lime;  i  bushel  Salt;  2  ll>s. 
Spanish  brown ;  5  Ibs.  Sulphur ;  i  Ib.  Saltpetre ;  *  Ib.  Copperas.  Pul- 
verizo  the  last  two  thoroughly ;  mix  all  in  a  bin,  box,  or  barrel,  and 
keep  in  an  open  trough,  where  the  hogs  can  have  free  access  to  it, 
and  keep  well  moistened  with  good  swill,  or  milk.  If  your  herd  is 
not  large,  or  you  lack  a  sufficient  amount  of  some  of  the  ingredients, 
mix  smaller  amounts  of  each  in  the  same  proportion.  Aim  to  keep 
these  articles  on  hand  at  all  times,  and  do  not  neglect  their  use; 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLKKA.  285 

they  contain  certain  chemical  elements  which  are  wanting  in  every 
hog  predisposed  to  disease.  Yon  will  soon  observe,  by  careful 
watching,  that  the  animal  that  looks  the  worst,  and  with  which, 
as  you  say,  *  there  seems  to  be  something  the  matter,'  these  are  the 
ones  that  will  call  on  you  to  fill  this  trough  the  ot'tenest,  and  they 
will  usually  visit  it,  either  as  they  go  to  or  return  from  their  feed. 
"  A  disease  called  the  cholera  sometimes  manifests  itself  by  a 
short  and  quick,  difficult  breathing ;  the  head  droops,  the  back  is 
raised,  no  disposition  to  move,  eyes  look  bad,  a  slight  cough,  of 
course  no  appetite ;  often  diarrhoea  attends  the  last  stage,  in  which 
many  animals  die.  In  such  symptoms,  I  would  try  the  Oil  of  Pep- 
permint, prepared  as  an  essence,  but  one-third  stronger.  Put  this 
into  warm  water,  sweetened  with  sugar,  and  give  two  tablcspoon- 
fuls  to  each  of  your  hogs  sick,  or  subject  to  attack.  A  customer, 
in  whose  word  and  observation  I  have  perfect  confidence,  writes 
me  that  he  used  this  remedy  in  nineteen  cases  that  were  affected 
as  above,  and  not  one  died,  though  every  hog  was  lost  on  the 
adjoining  farm  that  was  attacked,  though  many  other  remedies 
were  used." 

A  correspondent  of  the  Louisville  Courier-Journal  fur- 
nishes the  following  as  an  "  infallible  remedy"  for  Hog 
Cholera : 

"  Dissolve  thoroughly  one  pound  of  Copperas  in  three  gallons 
of  warm  water,  and  apply  the  wash  about  milk-warm  to  the 
affected  animal,  by  dipping  into  the  solution  or  rubbing  upon  it, 
until  the  skin  is  thoroughly  wet.  Whenever  the  skin  of  the  hog 
begins  to  look  rough  and  scaly,  or  of  a  dark-red  color,  apply  the 
wash  immediately.  Do  not  wait  until  the  more  alarming  symp- 
tems  (vomiting  and  purging)  set  in.  Apply  the  wash  every  day, 
until  the  scales  are  removed." 

Seeing  accounts  in  the  agricultural  press,  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Messrs.  R.  Kimberly  &  Son,  breeders  of  Ches- 
ter Whites,  at  Green  River,  Henry  county,  Illinois,  in 
preventing  diseases  in  their  swine,  by  a  simple — and,  as 
they  believe,  infallible — remedy,  we  applied  to  them  for 
particulars. 

Under  date  of  March  1st,  1877,  they  write  : 
"  We  have  reports  from  every  quarter,  of  cholera  among  swine, 
to  an  extent  that  is  truly  alarming.     When  we  go  to  a  market 
town,  we  see  load  after  load  of  hogs  that  have  died  of  cholera, 


286  su  '-N1-  II1  -HAN  IH:Y. 

and  we  know  that  it  is  raging  on  every  band,  while  at  the  same 
time,  our  own  herd  continues  healthy. 

"Common  *  Smart-weed'  tea  has  prevented,  and  we  believe  \\  ill 
prevent— if  used  judiciously  and  in  season — not  only  cholera,  hut 
the  many  diseases  known  by  that  name. 

"  In  its  green  state,  we  poaud  the  Smart- weed  in  an  iron  kc -tth -, 
press  out  the  juice  and  mix  it,  in  small  quantities,  with  good  M\  ill. 

"  When  we  discover  want  of  appetite  in  a  hog  (that  is  tin-  lir-4 
symptom  in  nearly  all  diseases  of  swine),  we  feed  them  rn'-u.-rli  "f 
this  to  make  them  cough  and  sneeze  greatly,  and  it  has  never  tailed, 
with  us,  to  bring  them  around  all  right. 

"  We  most  fully  believe  that  this  remedy  will  not  only  prevent 
all  cholera,  but  promote  health  and  thrift. 

11  For  use  through  the  year  the  herb  should  be  gathered  when  in 
bloom,  tied  in  small  bundles,  and  hung  in  a  sheltered,  dry  place, 
and  when  wanted  for  us?,  make  a  tea  of  it,  by  boiling.  Then  an- 
two  kinds  of  Smart- weed,  and  the  smallest,  with  the  narn. \\.-i 
leaves,  is  the  one  we  use. 

"  We  would  not  part  with  this  remedy  for  any  that  has  yet  l.n-n 
discovered,  or  is  likely  to  be,  for  the  next  twenty  years,  especially 
as  a  preventive  and  general  corrective. 

"Disease,  however,  will  continue  to  carry  off  a  portion  of  tin- 
hogs  in  the  country,  so  long  as  they  are  permitted  to  pile  together 
in  large  numbers,  in  manure  heaps,  under  some  old  barn  or  shed, 
until  in  a  more  than  fever  heat,  out  of  which  they  rush  into  a  /  i  » 
atmosphere  at  feeding  tune." 

Milton  Briggs,  author  of  The  Western  Farmer  and 
Stock  Grower,  and  widely  known  as  a  successful  grower 
of  cattle  and  hogs  on  a  large  scale  in  Iowa,  writes : 

"I  supply  nil  my  hogs  with  a  compound  of  Bituminous  Coal, 
Wood-ashes,  or  Lime  and  Salt.  I  place  in  a  bin  or  box,  open,  so  that 
hogs  can  dig  out  at  bottom,  and  not  run  on  to  their  feed.  I  place 
this  bin  so  they  can  have  access  to  it  at  all  times.  Five  tons  of 
what  is  called  Slack  Coal,  with  four  or  five  bushels  of  Lime,  or  three 
to  four  barrels  of  Wood-ashes  and  one  barrel  of  Salt,  all  mixed. 
This  quantity  will  feed  100  head  of  hogs  about  four  months.  All 
hogs  having  access  to  this  feed,  will  keep  free  from  disease,  even 
if  exposed  to  hogs  having  the  cholera.  I  have  purchased  hogs  that 
were  diseased,  having  cholera  in  its  first  stages,  and  turned  in  with 
well  hogs  where  there  were  lanre  numbers  running  together.  All 
symptoms  of  disease  would  soon  disappear  under  this  mode  of 


SO-CALLED    HOG    CHOLERA.  287 

treatment.  The  cholera  bogs  woul;l  soon  begin  to  cast  off  their 
mange  or  scales  from  the  skin,  and  assume  a  healthy  appearance. 
A  composition  of  Carbonate  of  Soda,  Sulphur,  Sulphate  of  Iron, 
and  Carbolic  Acid,  will  arrest  the  spread  of  cholera,  in  its  worst 
stages." 

Ezra  Stetson,  of  Neponset,  Illinois,  a  practitioner  of 
medicine  for  twenty  years,  and  for  the  twenty  years  prior 
to  1876,  a  farmer  and  hog  raiser  on  a  large  scale,  by 
iv<juest  of  the  editor  presented  his  views  and  extended 
observations  on  the  so-called  Hog  Cholera  in  a  series  of 
papers  carefully  prepared  for  the  National  Live  Stock 
Journal,  and  he  is  confident  the  disease  is  of  the  same 
nature  and  origin  as  typhus  fever  in  man,  and  belongs  to 
a  class  of  diseases  caused  by  what  he  terms  *  *  crowd  poison. " 

He  has  never  known  nor  heard  of  an  outbreak  of  this 
disease,  except  where  large  numbers  of  swine  were  kept 
together,  unless  communicated  by  contagion. 

"  It  is  only  when  the  herd  reaches  into  hundreds  that 
the  disease  assumes  its  most  malignant  form  and  carries 
death  and  destruction  in  its  path  like  a  whirlwind." 
Extreme  heat  and  cold  are  favorable  periods  for  it ;  but  it 
is  prevalent  all  the  year,  and  few  animals  escape  that  are 
exposed  to  its  contagion.  Dogs,  wolves,  and  all  rapacious 
animals  or  birds  spread  it,  and  to  effectually  prevent  this, 
the  dead  hogs  should  be  wholly  consumed  by  burning. 

Dr.  Stetson  thinks  prevention  is  the  only  hope,  and  this 
must  be  accomplished  by  giving  hogs  proper  accommoda- 
tions, preventing  their  piling  together,  insuring  them 
ventilation,  shelter  from  sun,  and  protection  from  cold. 
"  Medicines,  as  such,  should  never  be  given  them.  No 
specific  for  this  sty  fever  in  swine,  or  typhus  in  man,  has 
yet  been  discovered.  , 

"Disinfectants  are  the  nearest  approach  to  safety  from 
crowd  poison  that  we  yet  possess.  The  most  valuable  is 
Carbolic  Acid,  and  since  using  this — eight  or  ten  years— 
in  my  own  herd,  I  have  suffered  no  loss  from  this  dis- 
ease. The  crude  acid,  a  dark,  tarry  liquid,  costing  about 


ov  fin-- 

r-,  T->  CiT 


288  8WINK    HUSliA.NDKV. 

<me  dollar  per  gallon,  is  used  at  the  rate  of  ;i  pint  to  a 
bucket  of  water,  and  with  this  the  nests  and  woodwork 
about  them  are  sprinkled  at  least  once  a  week.  An  ounce 
of  the  acid  is  occasionally  put  in  a  barrel  of  swill  or  waU-i 
for  the  hogs  to  drink." 

At  a  meeting  of  stock-breeders  and  farmers  of  Iowa, 
held  at  West  Liberty,  during  three  days  in  February,  1877, 
there  was  an  extended  discussion  on  swine  managrnu'iii. 
Mr.  J.  S.  Long,  of  Jasper  county,  referring  to  hog  chol- 
era, said  ho  could  givo  some  experience  that  he  thought 
would  be  of  value  to  all.  Years  ago  he  lost  thousands  of 
dollars'  worth  of  hogs,  but  for  the  last  six  years  In-  had 
not  lost  any,  and  he  had  a  remedy,  if  any  one  would  try, 
he  would  warrant  they  would  lose  no  inoiv  ho--,  pn.\idi'd 
they  did  exactly  as  he  said,  and  the  hogs  were  not  past 
drinking,  so  they  could  not  take  the  medicine,  lit  had 
tried  it  in  thousands  of  cases,  and  never  had  a  failure ; 
was  now  engagel  in  buying  lots  of  hogs  where  cholera 
prevailed  ;  bought  250  recently,  and  found  no  trouble  in 
curing  them.  His  remedy  was  this  :  "  Make  Concen- 
trated Lye  into  good  soap  by  the  usual  rule  ;  take  one  puil 
of  the  Soap  to  fifty  hogs  ;  put  it  in  a  kettle,  add  water 
and  two  pounds  of  Copperas,  boil  it,  then  add  dish-water 
and  milk  (or  anything  to  make  it  taste  good)  till  you  have 
about  what  the  fifty  hogs  will  drink.  Place  enough  of 
the  mixture,  while  warm,  for  twenty-five  hogs  to  drink,  in 
troughs,  in  a  separate  lot.  Just  as  you  are  ready  to  let 
the  hogs  in,  scatter  two  pounds  of  Soda  in  the  troughs, 
the  object  is  to  have  it  foaming  as  the  hogs  come  to  drink. 
Be  sure  that  every  hog  drinks,  and  if  he  will  not  drink, 
put  him  in  the  hospital,  and  if  you  cannot  get  him  to 
drink  then,  knock  him  in  the  head,  for  he  will  give  the 
cholera  to  the  rest.  After  twenty-five  have  had  all  they 
will,  drink  let  in  twenty-five  more,  and  continue  till  the 
whole  are  treated.  The  next  day  I  go  through  with  the 
same  operation.  After  the  second  day  skip  a  day,  then 


VARIOUS    DISEASES.  280 

give  for  two  days,  and  you  may  turn  them  out  cured.  I 
generally  give  the  same  dose  once  a  week  to  my  hogs.  An 
important  point  is  to  make  the  hog  drink,  and,  if  he 
will  not  take  it  any  other  way,  add  new  milk,  or  put  in 
sugar." 

As  evidence  of  his  entire  faith  in  his  remedy  and  mode 
of  administering  it,  Mr.  Long  offered  "  to  pay  ton  cents 
a  pound  for  every  hog  he  could  not  cure,  provided  the  hog 
was  not  past  drinking." 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 
VARIOUS    DISEASES    COMMON    TO    SWINE. 

While  in  the  great  pork-producing  States  the  disease, 
or  diseases,  known  as  "  Hog  Cholera,"  overshadows  in 
importance  all  other  ailments  of  swine,  there  are  numer- 
ous other  diseases  to  which  these  animals  are  more  or  less 
subject.  Some  of  these,  such  as  Trichina  and  Measles, 
are  of  greater  importance,  from  their  effects  upon  man 
than  for  their  injury  to  the  swine  themselves,  and  on  this 
account  call  for  vigilance  in  preventing  them — as  cure  is 
out  of  the  question.  The  leading  diseases  are  here  enu- 
merated, and  those  remedies  that  have  been  found  most 
useful  are  prescribed. 

WORMS. 

There  is  perhaps  no  animated  existence  that  is  troubled 
to  so  great  an  extent,  or  with  so  many  varieties  of  worms, 
as  the  hog.  Although  savoring,  somewhat,  of  quackery 
in  principle,  it  is  yet  almost  safe  to  say  that,  when  your 
hog  is  sick,  and  you  cannot  tell  what  is  the  matter,  doc- 
tor for  worms. 

"  The  principal  symptom  is  a  gormandizing  appetite,  without 
corresponding  improvement  in  flesh,  with  an  excessive  itching, 
causing  the  animal  to  rub,  especially  the  hind  parts. 


290  SWLNE    HUSBANDRY. 

"  One,  known  as  the  round  worm,  is  usually  the  size  of  a  small 
goose-quill,  and  six  or  seven  inches  in  length,  of  a  brownish  color, 
and  somewhat  corrugated. 

"  Probably  the  most  effectual  remedy  that  can  be  used  is  Santo- 
nin. This  is  the  active  principle  of  a  plant  called  Worm— «  i, 
and  is  the  base  of  many  of  the  vermifuges.  It  is  in  small  whit  • 
crystals,  is  usually  very  prompt  in  its  action,  and  may  be  given 
in  doses  of  one-tiiird  of  a  teaspoonful  morning  and  evening,  for 
two  or  three  days,  and  following  with  a  brisk  cathartic,  sin-h  a> 
Calomel,  in  teaspoonful  doses. 

"Two  other  worms  inhabit  the  lower  bowels, or  large  ini'-siin.  , 
generally  near  the  anus,  and  may  be  frequently  seen  coming  from 
the  animal.  One  is  a  white  slender  worm,  about  three  inches  long, 
and  as  large  as  a  knitting-needle;  the  other  a  littlr  white  worm, 
shaped  somewhat  like  a  tadpole,  and  half  or  three-quarters  of  an 
inch  long. 

"Occasionally,  these  may  be  removed  by  giving  one  and  a  halt 
tablespoon fu Is  of  Barbadoes  Aloes,  with  one  teaspoonful  of  Cop- 
peras, each  morning,  for  a  week. 

"  If  this  fails  to  discharge  them,  after  taking  three  or  four  days, 
an  injection  may  be  given,  as  follows -.  Tincture  of  Assafoctida,  one 
tablespoonful ;  Salt,  one  teaspoonful ;  Water,  half  a  pint ;  mix  all 
together,  warm  silghtly,  and  inject, 

"  Such  treatment  as  this  may  not  be  appreciated  by  the  reader. 
But  in  these  days,  when  a  choice  breeding  animal  may  cost  two  or 
three  hundred  dollars,  we  certainly  should  know  all  the  remedies 
that  may  be  required  to  save  life  or  restore  health."—  (Dr  Chatc.) 

Mr.  Moore  says  : 

"  To  swine  that  are  troubled  with  worms,  mix  Wood-ashes  with 
Soap-suds,  and  feed  once  a  week  with  their  slope." 

TRICHINA   SPIRALJS. 

This  is  a  minute  worm  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
that  infests  the  flesh  and  muscles  of  man,  the  hog,  and 
several  other  animals,  such  as  dogs,  cats,  rats,  and  mice, 
and  it  was  estimated  by  Leuckart  that  a  single  ounce  of 
cat  flesh,  observed  by  him.  must  have  harbored  more  than 
300,000  of  these  parasites,  which  shows  that  under  favor- 
able conditions  they  accumulate  in  immense  numbers. 

They  vary  in  length  from  '/18  to  '/fl  of  an  inch,  have  a 


VAKIOUS    DISEASES. 


291 


Fig.  12.  —  TBICHINA  IN 
MUSCLE.  —Magnified. 


rounded  slender  body,  with  the  head  very  narrow  and 
sharply  pointed,  and  although  so  diminutive,  are  among 
the  most  deadly  worms  known. 

The  mature  and  fertile  worm  lives  in  the  intestines  of 
animals,  the  immature  in  minute 
cysts  (sacks  or  pouches)  in  the 
muscles,  (see  fig.  12),  and  these 
cysts  only  reach  maturity  and  re- 
produce their  kind  when  the  ani- 
mal they  infest  is  devoured  by  an- 
other, and  they  are  set  free  by  the 
processes  of  digestion.  Swine  per- 
mitted to  eat  the  offal  from 
slaughter  -  houses,  carrion,  rats, 
mice,  and  decaying  animal  mat- 
ter of  any  kind,  are  usually  more 
or  less  infested  with  trichina,  and 
its  dangerous  nature  is  a  powerful 
argument  in  favor  of  supplying  them  with  food  that  is 
sound  and  wholesome. 

In  about  two  days  from  the  time  the  trichina  is  taken 
into  the  stomach,  it  reaches  the  adult  condition,  and 
about  the  seventh  day  the  female  brings  forth  a  numer- 
ous brood  of  minute  hair-like  larvae  which  soon  begin 
piercing  the  intestinal  walls,  whence  they  proceed  through 
the  system,  until  they  reach  and  penetrate  the  muscles. 
Their  borings  cause  violent  muscular  pains,  like  rheu- 
matism, for  which  in  man  it  is  often  mistaken  ;  also  stiff- 
ness, some  fever,  with  diarrhoea,  and  much  irritation  for 
the  first  fortnight.  The  duration  of  an  attack  is  from 
four  to  eight  weeks,  and  the  period  of  recovery  as  much 
longer.  If  the  patient  survives  six  weeks,  recovery  may 
be  looked  for,  as  irritation  ceases  when  the  worms  have 
become  encysted  in  the  muscle. 

An  attack  of  trichiniasis  where  not  at  first  suspected, 
is  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  typhoid  fever, 


292  >\VINI:   ii 

We  have  no  knowledge  of  an  instance  wheiv  =\vine  have 
been  lost  by  being  infested  with  trichina,  and  tin-  treat- 
ment of  human  subjects  so  affected  has  been  by  tin-  in«»-t 
skilled  physicians  considered  far  from  satisfactory.  'I'll 
most  familial*  with  the  symptoms  recommend.  c>i>e< -ially 
at  first,  cathartics  and  vermifuges  ;  Castor  Oil,  Glycerine, 
Benzine,  Alcohol,  and  Picric  Acid  are  named. 

Hogs  that  run  at  large,  or  are  treated  with  neglect,  are 
always  liable  to  have  trichina,  and  the  flesh  of  such  can 
only  be  eaten  with  safety  after  it  is  thoroughly  cooked,  and 
we  have  seen  it  authoritatively  stated  that  these  disgu.-t- 
ing  parasites  will  survive  140  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Partially  cooked  ham,  sausage,  and  similar  meats,  such 
as  are  kept  on  sale  at  cheap  restaurants,  eating  stalls, 
booths,  etc.,  should  especially  be  avoided. 

KIDNEY   WORMS. 

Symptoms:  Imperfect  use  of  hind  legs,  inclination  to  He  down, 
a  seeming  paralysis  of  hind  parts,  inability  to  raise  on  the  hind  feet. 

Dr.  Chase,  in  his  work,  "The  Hog,  its  Diseases,  and\ 
Treatment,"  says  : 

"  This  worm  infests  hogs  to  an  alarming  extent,  and  though  not 
fatal  in  its  effects,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  disease. 

"  When  full-grown,  it  is  as  large  as  a  small  wheat-straw,  and 
nearly  two  inches  in  length.  It  inhabits  the  leaf-lard,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  kidneys,  and  we  have  sometimes  seen  scores  of 
them  in  the  same  hog.  It  is  nearly  black  along  the  back,  and  of  a 
brown  color  on  the  belly.  It  burrows  along  through  the  fat,  and 
is  a  frequent  cause  of  weak  loins,  and  sometimes  produces  a  slight 
inflammation  of  the  kidneys.  Turpentine  is  the  only  remedy  we 
have  ever  found  to  be  of  benefit,  and  conclude  that  its  rapid  absorp- 
tion into  the  circulation  and  through  the  kidneys,  has  the  effect  of 
driving  the  worm  further  away  from  those  organs,  when  the  irrita- 
tion ceases.  There  is  no  way  of  expelling  the  worm  from  the  sys- 
tem that  we  are  aware  of." 

Dr.  Paaren  says  in  the  Prairie  Fanner : 

"Kidney  worm  is  not  a  common  disease  in  hogs.  Occasionally 
one  or  two  in  a  number  of  hogs  may  suffer  from  the  presence  of 


VARIOUS   DISEASES.  293 

one  or  more  worms  in  the  kidneys;  but  the  ailment  is  not  often 
fatal,  and  becomes  so  only  after  a  longer  time  of  suffering,  and 
consequent  disease  or  degeneration  of  one  or  both  kidneys.  When 
we  are  told  tnat  a  number  of  pigs  simultaneously  refuse  their  food, 
lie  di»wn,  become  partly  paralyzed,  or  suffer  from  spasmodic 
twitchings,  we  are  inclined  to  conclude  that  they  are  affected  with 
some  other  ailment  than  kidney  worms." 

An  old  farmer,  of  La  Salle  county,  Illinois,  writes  : 

"  I  lately  saw  inquiries  about  kidney  worms  in  hogs,  indicated 
by  the  loss  of  the  use  of  the  hind  legs,  etc.  This  disease  has  pre- 
vailed very  extensively  here,  but  we  now  have  a  certain  cure,  viz : 
One  tablespoonful  of  Turpentine  poured  on  across  the  loins  or 
small  of  the  back,  every  day,  for  three  days.  I  have  never  known 
it  to  fail,  even  when  the  hogs  had  been  down  for  weeks  unable  to 
rise." 

"  H.  D.  Court,  the  well-known  breeder  of  Chester  White  swine 
at  Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  writes  that  he  has  found  a  teaspoonful  of 
pulverized  Copperas,  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  Sulphur,  fed 
in  the  night's  meal,  for  three  clays,  effective  in  this  disease.  Some- 
times a  longer  treatment  is  necessary." 

Corn  soaked  in  lye  made  from  wood-ashes,  is  a  conveni- 
ent preventive,  and  is  used  with  success  when  signs  of  the 
complaint  first  appear.  Prof.  Law  says  its  presence  in 
the  kidney  may  sometimes  be  recognized  by  the  existence 
of  microscopic  eggs  in  the  urine.  The  same  results  from 
another  woTm—Ewtrongylus  gigas.  But  without  ob- 
servation of  such  eggs,  weakness  of  the  hind  parts  cannot 
be  ascribed  to  kidney  worm. 

MEASLES. 

Prof.  Law,  in  his  "  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser,"  says : 

"  The  bladder- worm  of  pork  (Cysticercus  cellidosce)  is  the  imma- 
ture form  of  a  tape- worm  in  man,  (Ta- 
nia  solium),  and  is  only  caused  by  pigs 
having  access  to  human  excrement,  or 
to  places  near  privies,  etc.,  from  which 
the  segments  of  the  human  tape-worm 
Fig.  13.— CYSTICERCUS     mav  travel.   The  cysts,  respectively  about 
CELLULOSE.  the  gize  ()f  agrain  Of  barley,  are  found  in 

the  muscles,  in  the  loose  connective  tissue,  and  under  the  skin,  in 


294 


SWINK     III   SI'.AM'KY. 


the  serous  membranes,  in  the  eye, under  the  ton«rin\  rt<\.  of  swine. 
[Fig.  13  shows  a  separate  cyst,  enlarged ;  fig.  14,  gives  the  cysi.-  « >i 
tiie  natural  size  as  they  appear  in  measly  pork.] 

"  They  are  also  found  in  this  undeveloped  form  in  the  muscles, 
brain,  etc.,  of  man,  causing  disease  and  death.    To  man,  the  para- 


Fig.  14. — CYSTS  OF  MEASLES  IN  PORK. 

site  is  usually  conveyed  by  eating  under-done  pork,  or  in  the  cystic 
form  he  receives  it  as  the  ogsj  in  his  food  (salads,  ?tc.,)  and  water. 

"SYMPTOMS. — In  pigs,  the  cysts  can  usually  be  seen  under  UK- 
tongue,  or  in  the  eye.  In  man,  there  are  the  general  symptoms  of 
intestinal  worms,  and  the  passage  of  the  ripe  segments. 

"  Other  symptoms  may  attend  the  presence  of  the  cysts,  accord- 


Fig.  15.—  HEAD  OP  TJSNIA  8OLTUM. 

ing  to  the  organ  which  they  invade.  Thus,  when  passing  into  tin- 
muscles,  there  are  pains  and  stiffness,  resembling  rheumatism  , 
when  into  the  brain,  coma,  stupor,  imbecility,  delirium,  but  when 
they  have  once  become  encysted,  they  may  continue  thus  indefi- 
nitely, without  further  injury. 

"  TREATMENT. — The  cysts  scattered  through  the  body  are  beyond 
the  reach  of  medicine. 

"  PREVENTION.— Human  beings  harboring  tape- worms  should 
be  compelled  to  take  the  measures  to  expel  them.  Their  stools 
should  be  burned,  or  treated  with  strong  mineral  acids.  Swine 
should  be  kept  far  apart  from  all  human  excrement ;  no  such  ma- 
nure should  be  used  as  a  top-dressing  on  pastures  open  to  swine, 
or  on  lands  devoted  to  the  raising  of  vegetables  to  be  eaten  raw. 

"Avoid  raw  meat,  especially  pork,  even  if  salted  and  smoked, 
and  under-done  meat  and  sausages,  also  well-water,  from  gravelly 
soils,  in  the  vicinity  of  habitations." 


VABIOUS    DISEASES.  $95 

MANGE. 

"  Mange,  itch,  or  scab,  in  the  lower  animals  is  a  skin  disease  of  a 
purely  local  nature,  due  to  an  insect,  which  induces  irritation, 
ulceration,  suppuration,  and  incrustation  on  the  surface  of  the  body 
generally.  It  is  a  contagious  disease,  never  originating  spontane- 
ously, and  requiring  for  its  development  the  passage  of  the  parasites 
or  their  eggs  from  diseased  to  healthy  animals.  In  man,  this  dis- 
ease is  termed  '  the  itch,'  and  in  the  lower  animals  it  is  usually 
alluded  to  as  *  mange,'  and  in  sheep  it  is  well  known  as  a  fearfully 
destructive  disease,  under  the  name  of  'scab.' 

"  There  are  some  important  points  in  the  history  of  scabies  which 
apply  to  this  disease,  as  it  affects  the  animal  kingdom  generally. 
There  is  no  species  in  the  class  mammalia  that  is  not  attacked  with 
an  insect  inducing  such  a  disease,  if  we  perhaps  except  those  that 
live  mostly  in  water.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  though  the  weak, 
dirty,  and  ill  nourished  condition  of  some  animals  renders  them 
very  liable  to  the  disease,  they  only  become  affected  when  diseased 
animals  accidentally  come  in  contact  with  them.  A  most  import- 
ant point,  very  clearly  established,  is,  that  although  any  animal  may 
accidentally  be  the  carrier  of  a  contagion  between  other  two,  such 
as  a  cat  or  a  dog  carrying  disease  from  one  horse  to  another,  that 
it  is  essential  for  the  development  of  a  real  scabies  on  any  animal, 
that  the  insect  should  be  proper  to  that  animal.  Thus  human  be- 
ings, engaged  around  mangy  horses,  carry  the  malady  from  one 
animal  to  another,  and  suffer  but  very  slightly,  and  only  for  a  very 
short  time,  themselves.  The  parasite  which  lives  on  the  horse  does 
not  live  on  man,  and  the  parasite  that  lives  on  the  sheep  does  not 
contaminate  the  shepherd's  dog,  though  the  latter  may,  like  the 
shepherd,  or  the  many  rubbing-places  on  driftways,  be  the  means 
whereby  the  malady  spreads. 

**  The  mange  of  the  pig  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a  burrowing 
sarcoptes.  Sarcoptes  suis  is  much  like  the  human  sarcoptes  and 
the  horse  sarcoptes.  Itch  and  mange  are  known  to  be  essentially 
skin  diseases,  curable  alone  by  topical  remedies;  and  the  medi- 
cines nsed  are  valuable  almost  in  proportion  to  the  rapidity  with 
which  they  destroy  the  life  of  the  parasites  which  give  rise  to 
the  irritation  and  other  morbid  appearances. 

"  In  treating  the  mange,  we  should  first  cover  the  body  with 
soft  soap,  and  wash  it  off  some  time  afterwards  with  warm  water, 
and  have  the  animal  well  brushed ;  or  a  wash  may  be  used,  con- 
sisting of  one  part  of  Caustic  Potash  to  fifty  parts  of  water ;  or  one 
part  of  Creosote  to  forty  parts  of  oil,  well  mixed ;  or  Sulphuret  of 


296  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

Potassium  in  water,  in  the  proportion  of  one  to  ten  parts ;  or  a 
decoction  of  Tobacco,  in  the  ratio  of  one  to  twenty-live  ;  or  lastly, 
concentrated  Vinegar.  One  or  two  days  after  the  thorough  ap- 
plication of  either  one  of  these  preparations,  wash  the  body  well 
with  soap  and  water  or  potash  lye.  Whenever  scabies  is  treated, 
it  is  essential  to  purify  all  objects  with  which  animals  can  come 
in  contact.  Thus,  all  rubbing-places  and  sties  should  have  a  cov- 
ering of  lime,  or  chloride  of  lime.  The  sties  should  be  cleaned 
out  entirely,  or  the  pigs  removed  for  a  few  months  to  a  new  pen." 
(Dr.  Paaren,  V.  8.) 

RECIPE  FOR  MANGE  OINTMENT.— Melt  half  a  pound  of  common 
Turpentine  with  a  pound  and  a  half  of  Lard.  Stir  well  then  in  a 
pound  of  Flowers  of  Sulphur,  and  when  cool,  nib  down  upon  a 
marble  slab,  two  ounces  of  strong  Mercurial  Ointment  with  these. 

LICE. 

"Lice  are  a  sad  torment  to  poverty-stricken  and  badly-kept 
stock,  appearing  by  myriads,  and  causing  excessive  itching  and 
irritation.  They  will  effectually  prevent  an  animal  from  laying  «>n 
fat  or  doing  well,  as  long  as  their  presence  is  permitted.  Vari.  »us 
remedies  and  dressings  are  recommended  for  lice,  and  some  an; 
excessively  dangerous,  especially  the  preparations  of  mercury  and 
arsenic, — the  skin  of  most  animals  being  extremely  sensitive  to  the 
action  of  these  agents.  We  have  frequently  recommended  the 
following  formula,  as  being  both  safe  and  destructive  to  lice: 
Stavesacre  seeJ,  four  ounces  ;  White  Hellebore,  one  ounce;  boiled 
in  a  gallon  of  water  until  only  two  quarts  remain.  Apply  with  a 
brush  to  the  parts  where  lice  are  seen.  A  decoction  of  Tobacco 
may  also  be  tried.  On  no  account  should  mercurial  or  arsenical 
preparations  be  employed  in  these  cases,  as,  from  the  great  ex- 
tent of  surface  it  is  often  necessary  to  apply  the  dressing  to,  death 
has  frequently  resulted." — (Paaren.) 

"  We  have  used  the  following  remedy,  which  will  clean  off  the 
lice  in  two  days :  Put  about  one  gill  of  kerosene  oil  in  any  old  dish, 
and  with  a  paint  brush  or  old  woolen  rag  rub  the  oil  up  and  down 
the  back  of  the  animal,  and  behind  the  fore  leg,  and  on  the  flank. 
Be  particular  about  the  last  two  places,  for  it  is  where  the  lice 
deposit  their  eggs,  which,  if  not  destroyed,  will  hatch  out  in  about 
five  days.  If  it  be  a  black  hog,  these  eggs  can  be  plainly  seen, 
being  about  the  size  of  timothy  s^ed,  and  laying  close  to  the  skin 
fast  to  the  hair.  No  one  need  fear  to  use  the  oil  freely,  as  it  will 
not  injure  the  hog  in  the  least." 


VARIOUS   DISEASES.  297 

"  A  Tennessee  Agricultural  paper  says :  *  W.  S.  Swann  informs 
us  that  he  has  an  infallible  remedy  for  ridding  hogs  of  lice,  simple 
and  easy  of  application ;  which  is  to  take  buttermilk  and  pour  it 
along  the  hog's  back  and  neck,  and  after  two  or  three  applications, 
not  a  louse  will  be  seen.  Ho  has  tried,  and  seen  it  tried,  in  several 
cases,  with  the  samo  success  in  every  instance.  Mr.  Swann  being 
a  reliable  man,  and  the  remedy  very  simple,  we  recommend  its 
trial  to  our  fanner  friends  whoss  hogs  are  troubled  with  lice.' " 

"A.  C.  Moore  says:  'Take  two  parts  of  Kerosene  and  one  part 
of  Lard-oil,  mix,  and  apply  to  the  hair  and  skin  with  a  sponge  or 
cloth;  rub  it  well  overall  the  parts  where  nits  are  liable  to  be 
found,  and  you  have  a  certain  cure.  Two  or  three  applications,  if 
thoroughly  done,  will  not  fail.  B3  careful  to  cover  the  skin  behind 
the  ears  and  fore  arms — here  are  the  nits,  and  these  are  the  places 
to  attack.' " 

"B.  T.  8.,  Mount  Pleasant,  Iowa,  writes:  'Scotch  snuff  and 
hog's  brd  will  destroy  lice  on  hogs.  One-fourth  pound  of  Snuff 
and  one  and  a  fourth  pound  of  Larcl  is  sufficient  for  twenty  head. 
Rub  the  mixture  along  the  back  of  the  hog  with  the  hand.' " 

PNEUMONIA. 

This  disease  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "  Thumps," 
but  is  more  severe  and  rapidly  fatal.  Designating  it  as 
Inflammation  of  the  Lungs  gives  a  better  idea  of  its  seat 
and  nature. 

Its  symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  shivering,  labored 
breathing,  and  severe  cough.  For  treatment  give  the 
animals  warm,  comfortable  quarters,  free  access  to  fresh, 
cool  water,  and  every  morning  two  drachms  Saltpetre,  or 
half  an  ounce  of  Hyposulphite  of  Soda  in  a  small  mess  of 
gruel. 

In  this,  as  other  diseases,  feeding  much  dry  corn  is  det- 
rimental to  recovery. 

COMMON    COUGH. 

This  is  known  to  many  farmers  as  rising  of  the  lights. 
It  is  sometimes  quite  troublesome,  if  not  fatal.  The 
prominent  indications  of  the  disease  are  loss  of  appetite, 
incessant  and  distressing  cough,  and  heaving  at  the  flanks. 


SWlNE   HUSBANDRY. 

As  soon  as  the  first  symptoms  are  perceived,  the  animal 
should  be  bled  ;  the  palate  is  the  best  place  ;  pnr«:uti\rs 
must  then  be  given,  but  cautiously.  Epsom  Salts  and 
Sulphur  will  be  best,  administered  in  a  dose  of  from  two 
to  four  drachms  each,  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal  ; 
afterwards  give  a  sedative,  composed  of  Digitalis  two 
grains,  Pulvis  Antimonialis  six  grains,  Nitre  half  drat  Inn. 
Cleanliness,  warmth,  and  wholesome,  cooling,  nutritious 
food,  are  likewise  valuable  aids  in  combating  this  disease. 

E.  W.  Bryant,  of  Illinois,  breeder  of  Poland-Chinas, 
says,  "my  remedy  for  cough  in  pigs  is  oats.  Feed  once 
or  twice  a  week  all  they  will  eat.  The  cough  is  caused 
by  costiveness  ;  the  oats  will  loosen  their  bowels  and  the 
cough  will  disappear." 

Of  Thumps  or  Heaves,  A.  C.  Moore  says : 

"  I  have  never  &een  a  case  but  it  was  preceded  by  a  cough,  which 
was  generally  worse  in  the  morning,  or  when  the  pig  first  came 
from  its  bed.  My  ordinary  remedy  is  to  place  a  small  amount  of 
Tar,  the  bulk  of  an  egg,  well  down  in  the  mouth.  This  can  readily 
be  done,  by  the  us?  of  a  wooden  pa  Idle,  and  should  be  done  for 
two  or  three  successive  mornings.  If  the  disease  does  not  yield  to 
three  doses,  I  woul  1  dissolve  one  pint  of  Tar  in  a  gallon  of  Water, 
and  use  one  quart  as  a  drench,  repeating  the  dose  every  morning  if 
required.  I  do  not  believe  there  is  a  better  remedy,  though  some 
recommend  Tartar  Emetic  in  small  doses,  mixed  with  the  milk  or 
water  given  as  a  drink,  and  continued  from  five  to  ten  days.  A 
reliable  customer  writes  me,  he  has  used  Tartar-emetic  in  three 
cases  with  perfect  success.  Another  says  that  two  to  three  spoons- 
ful of  Salt,  put  well  down  in  the  throat,  is  a  sure  cure. 

QUINSY,    OR   "  STRANGLES." 

This  disease  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  rapid  in  its 
progress,  and  generally  fatal,  and  mostly  confined  to  fat 
hogs,  or  those  fed  highly.  The  first  symptoms  are  : 
Swelling  of  glands  under  the  throat,  followed  by  rapid 
and  difficult  breathing  and  difficulty  in  swallowing  ;  the 
neck  swells  arid  gangrenes,  the  tongue  protrudes  from  the 
mouth,  and  is  covered  with  slaver. 


VARIOUS  DISEASES.  291) 

In  the  beginning  of  the  disease,  give  an  active  emetic, 
such  as  the  following ;  Potassio-tartrate  of  Antimony 
(Tartar-emetic)  four  grains ;  Ipecacuanha,  six  grains ; 
White  Hellebore,  six  grains.  Mix  and  give  in  food,  or 
throw  into  the  mouth.  If  the  animal  will  drink  any- 
thing or  eat  a  little,  a  purgative  powder,  consisting  of 
two  or  three  drachms  of  Castor  Oil  seeds  should  be  given. 
When  difficulty  of  breathing  is  great,  apply  an  active 
blister  over  the  throat,  and  give  injections  frequently.  If 
the  animal  can  swallow,  and  will  drink  water,  some  Sal- 
ammoniac  and  Nitre  should  be  dissolved  in  it. 

The  recipe  below,  for  Quinsy,  is  from  Caiman's  Rural 
World: 

"  When  the  animal  has  the  disease  in  a  bad  form,  split  the  neck 
on  each  side  of  the  throat  so  that  it  will  bleed  freely;  swab  the 
throat  well  with  Turpentine;  make  it  swallow  one  or  two  tea- 
spoonfuls  of  it ;  if  the  subject  will  drink,  this  can  be  given  in 
1  swill '  Enough  Turpentine  poured  on  corn  to  make  it  oily,  is  a 
preventive." 

NASAL  CATARRH,    OR   "BULL   NOSE." 

"  First  symptoms :  Unusual  discharge  from  the  nose,  the  inflam- 
mation gradually  extending  to  the  pharynx,  gullet,  and  larynx. 
The  animal  sniffles,  coughs  some,  mucous  membrane  swells,  the 
nose  thickens,  and  becomes  twisted  and  distorted  and  ill-shaped, 
and  when  exercised  a  little,  the  discharge  from  the  nose  becomes 
bloody,  or  is  pure  blood.  The  animal  still  eats  reasonably  well, 
but  will  not  fatten  nor  grow,  but  gradually  dwindles  away,  and 
dies. 

"  There  is  little  encouragement  in  trying  to  cure  this,  and  it  is 
considered  by  some  as  being  of  the  same  nature  as  glanders  in 
horses.  Animals  discovered  with  the  disease  should  be  destroyed, 
and  removed  from  the  farm." 

INFLAMMATION    OF  THE    BRAIN,    EPILEPSY,    OR   "  BLIND 


This  disease  frequently  attacks  swine,  especially  \\  hen 
changed  to  rich,  abundant  food,  or  exposed  to  stormy, 
changeable  weather.  At  first  the  animal  appears  dull, 


300  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

stupid,  and  disinclined  to  move.  The  eyes  become  n-«l 
and  inflamed,  the  bowels  constipated,  the  pulse  lianl  and 
quick.  In  a  short  time,  if  not  relieved,  the  animal  runs 
wildly  about,  usually  in  a  circle,  seems  blind,  will  run 
against  objects,  the  breathing  becomes  rapid  and  labo- 
rious. 

TREATMENT. — Give,  at  once,  a  teaspoonful  of  Calomel, 
cut  a  slit  in  the  skin  on  the  head  above  the  eyes,  cut  it 
clear  to  the  skull.  In  this  cut  put  Salt  and  Pepper  to  get 
up  a  counter-irritation.  If  this  does  not  succeed,  i:i;il.< 
a  liniment  as  follows  :  Take  a  four-ounce  vial,  int<>  it  put 
one  ounce  Spirits  Turpentine,  one  ounce  Capsicum,  <»nc 
ounce  Aqua  Ammonia,  half  ounce  Tincture  of  Arniea, 
quarter  ounce  Chloroform  ;  shake  well  before  using,  and 
rub  it  on,  around  upper  part  of  the  head  of  the  patient, 
and  between  the  base  of  the  ears  and  around  them. 

Professor  Law  recommends,  when  a  hog  is  attacked,  to 
dash  bucketsful  of  cold  water  over  the  body,  and  tlimw 
into  the  rectum  a  purgative  injection,  composed  of  six 
ounces  of  Sulphate  of  Soda  and  one  or  two  teaspoonsfuls  of 
Spirits  of  Turpentine  in  ten  ounces  of  Water.  Setons  sat  ur- 
ated  with  the  Turpentine  may  be  inserted  under  the  skin 
behind  the  ears  ;  or  the  back  of  the  neck  may  be  blis- 
tered by  actively  rubbing  in  the  following  mixture  :  Spir- 
its of  Turpentine  and  liquid  Ammonia,  one  ounce  of  each  ; 
powdered  Cantharides,  two  drachms.  When  it  occurs  in 
summer,  or  in  hot  weather,  its  severity  can  be  greatly 
modified  by  providing  shelter  in  a  shed,  where  they  can 
be  in  the  shade  during  the  heat  of  the  day ;  but  at  the 
same  time  a  free  circulation  of  air  should  be  secured. 
Water,  too,  should  be  constantly  within  the  reach  of  the 
animals,  and,  if  possible,  a  pool  of  it  provided  in  which 
they  can  'lie  at  will. 

Dr.  Chase  says  partial  recovery  will  soon  occur  after 
securing  a  free  evacuation  of  the  bowels.  A  teaspoonful 


VARIOUS    DISEASES.  301 

of  Copperas  may  be  given  twice  a  day,  for  two  weeks, 
abating  the  feed  somewhat.  Also,  to  never  bleed  in  this 
disease,  as  there  is  a  poverty  of  blood  already. 

The  North-British  Agriculturist  says  the  disease  which 
is  popularly  termed  staggers,  in  medical  parlance  is  called 
epilepsy.  It  depends  usually  upon  imperfect  nutrition 
of  the  brain  and  nervous  system.  In  pigs,  as  well  as  in 
other  animals,  epilepsy  is  often  hereditary.  Frequently 
it  is  developed  by  breeding  in-and-in. 

APOPLEXY. 

Apoplexy  only  occurs  in  fat  hogs,  being  caused  by  a 
too  plethoric  condition  of  the  system.  It  demands 
prompt  treatment,  and  is  indicated  by  the  stupid  move- 
ments of  the  animal  for  perhaps  several  hours  preceding 
its  dropping,  as  if  struck  heavily  on  the  head  with  a  sledge- 
hammer, when  the  limbs  straighten,  and  but  for  its  heavy 
breathing,  it  would  be  supposed  dead. 

Dr.  Chase  says  : 

"Bleed  quickly,  by  tying  a  cord  tightly  around  the  fore-leg, 
above  the  knee,  when  the  brachial  vein  will  be  seen  to  fill  up,  and 
may  readily  be  opened  with  a  lancet  or  sharp  pointed  knife.  The 
vein  is  cm  the  inside  of  the  leg,  and  should  be  opened  about  an 
inch  above  the  knee. 

"  If  possible  take  a  pint  and  a  half  of  blood,  or  even  more.  If 
this  vein  does  not  yield  a  sufficient  amount,  some  of  the  veins  on 
the  inside  of  the  ear  may  be  opened  by  turning  the  ear  back  and 
pressing  with  the  thumb  firmly  on  the  base.  Never  cut  off  an  car 
or  tail  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  blood.  s 

"  If  the  animal  recovers  from  a  first  attack,  at  the  earliest  pos- 
sible moment  give  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  Salts,  and  repeat  it  every 
three  hours,  until  the  bowels  move  freely.  Feed  lightly  for  a  few 
days,  giving  occasional  doses  of  salts,  and  the  probabilities  are 
that  it  will  permanently  recover.*  *  * 

"  Epilepsy,  or  blind  staggers,  is  the  only  disease  likely  to  be  con- 
founded with  apoplexy." 

PARAPLEGIA. 

Paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  loins  in  swine  is  of  fre- 


302  SWINB    HUSBANDRY. 

quent  occurrence,  but  usually  does  not  seem  to  interfere 
with  the  appetite  or  general  health  of  the  animal. 

It  is  sometimes  caused  by  a  severe  strain  of  the  back, 
or  blows  on  the  back  or  loins,  producing  concussion  of 
the  spinal  marrow.  If  such  is  known  to  be  the  canst-, 
cold  applications  may  be  tried,  for  a  few  da  vs.  on  tin- 
loins  and  back.  If  the  cause  is  unknown,  and  no  ft-u-r 
is  present  in  the  back,  a  liniment,  composed  of  njuul 
parts  of  Cantharides  (Spanish  Flies),  Olive  Oil,  ami  Spirits 
Turpentine,  may  be  applied,  or,  a  seton  may  be  in 
lengthwise  under  the  skin  over  the  loins.  Tin  animal 
should  be  given  comfortable  quarters,  with  fivrd.mi  from 
disturbance  by  others,  fed  on  sloppy,  soft  food  and  .-<»nr 
milk,  and  if  costive,  frequent  injections  of  warm  water 
should  be  used. 

DIAKRIHEA,    OB  SCOURS. 

Young  pigs  are  frequently  t  rou l>led  with  diarrhn-a.  The 
discharges  are  of  a  whitish  color,  and  pigs  of  sows  that 
have  a  cold  or  catarrh  are  liable  to  be  severely  troubled. 
It  rarely  attacks  old  hogs,  but  is  often  fatal  to  young 
pigs,  if  not  attended  to  in  time.  Too  much  grass  or 
clover,  given  to  a  sow  when  her  pigs  are  quite  young,  fre- 
quently causes  this  disease.  It  can  generally  be  checked 
by  shutting  the  sow  up  and  feeding  dry  corn  for  a  few 
days.  Skimmed  sweet  milk  fed  the  sow  is  also  good.  If 
pigs  arc  large  enough  to  eat,  give  them  dry,  raw  flour,  or 
corn,  rye,  or  wheat,  whole. 

If  too  young  to  eat,  a  lump  of  Alum,  the  size  of  a  wal- 
nut, may  be  dissolved  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  a  tea- 
spoonful  given  morning  and  evening,  to  pigs  a  week  or 
so  old. 

Dr.  Mulford  says,  in  the  American  Swine  and  Poultry 
Journal : 

"  Many  of  our  swine  breeders  in  the  Wtst  sustain  considerable 
loss  annually  by  their  pigs  dying  from  the  effects  of  what  is 
commonly  called  scours,  caused  by  the  bad  quality  of  the  sow's 


VARIOUS    DISEASES.  303 

milk.  The  disease  is  more  apt  to  make  its  appearance  when  the 
sow  has  been  fed  upon  dry  corn  or  musty  food.  It  generally 
attacks  them  within  one  or  two  days  after  their  birth,  and  seldom 
after  eight  or  ten  days.  I  have  never  failed  to  cure  this  disease  by 
giving  the  sow  as  much  Sulphur  of  the  third  decimal  trituration  as 
will  stand  on  a  nickel  five-cent  piece,  once  a  day.  It  may  be  given 
in  a  little  sweet  milk,  or  upon  a  small  piece  of  bread,  and  should 
be  given  one  hour  before  feeding.  The  medicine  can  be  procured 
of  any  Homoeopathic  physician.  I  have  cured  many  cases  with 
common  sulphur,  but  prefer  the  above." 

Mr.  Joseph  Harris,  in  his  in  valuable  work  on   "The 
Pig/'  justly  uses  the  following  language  : 

"  The  most  common  complaints  of  little  pigs  are  diarrhoea  and 
colds.  The  former  is  caused  by  giving  the  sow  improper  food,  or 
a  too  sudden  a  change  of  diet,  or  by  irregular  feeding,  or  from 
want  of  pure  water  and  fresh  air.  We  once  had  a  few  cooked 
beans  that  were  left  in  the  steam-barrel  until  they  decomposed. 
They  were  thrown  on  to  the  manure  heap,  and  a  sow,  which  was 
sucking  pigs,  ate  some  of  them.  Two  clays  afterwards,  the  whole 
litter  was  seized  with  violent  diarrhoea,  and  one  of  them  died  in 
the  course  of  two  or  three  days.  It  was  the  worst  case  of  the  kind 
we  ever  had,  and  the  diarrhoea  continued  for  four  or  five  days,  and 
was  not  stopped  until  we  gave  the  pigs  two  or  three  drops  of  Laud- 
anum each,  at  night,  in  some  fresh  cream,  with  a  teaspoon,  and 
repeated  the  dose  the  next  morning.  This  effected  a  cure,  but  the 
pigs  did  not  regain  their  thrifty  growth  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 
We  should  add  that  the  sow  continued  perfectly  well,  and  mani- 
fested no  symptoms  of  the  complaint.  As  a  general  rule,  no  medi- 
cine will  be  required.  Change  the  food  of  the  mother,  and  let  her 
go  out  into  the  air,  but  let  the  little  pigs  remain  in  the  pen,  and 
see  that  they  are  warm  and  comfortable.  The  less  they  are  dis- 
turbed, and  the  more  they  sleep,  the  sooner  will  they  recover.  It 
is  also  very  important  to  keep  the  pen  clean  and  well  ventilated. 
Nothing  can  be  worse  than  to  leave  the  evacuations  in  tne  pen. 
Scatter  some  dry  earth  about  the  pen  to  absorb  the  offensive  gases. 
Let  the  feeding  apartment  also  be  dusted  over  with  dry  earth,  or 
soil  of  any  kind  that  can  be  obtained,  and  then  scraped,  and  swept, 
and  washed,  and  a  little  dry  straw,  or  chaff,  or  sawdust,  be  spread 
on  it  to  prevent  dampness.  Scald  the  pig  troughs  *ith  boiling 
water  and  make  them  sweet  and  clean.  Let  this  be  done  every 
day.  The  attendant  should  understand  that  the  scours  are  an  ev^ 
dence  of  carelessness  or  negligence." 


304  SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 

CONSTIPATION. 

If  swine  are  discovered  voiding  hard,  dry  dung  in  com- 
pact, ball-like  masses,  it  denotes  fever;  they  require  11 
change  to  more  loosening,  cooling  diet.  Green  and  any 
kind  of  soft,  easily  digested  food  is  good,  and  bran  mushi-s 
prepared  with  hot  water,or  if  possible,  with  flax-nrd  u-a 
are  excellent. 

In  obstinate  cases,  an  ounce  of  Epsom  Salts  may  be 
given,  in  an  injection  of  warm  soap  suds. 

,  There  are  few  surer  indications  of  something  radically 
wrong  in  the  swine-yard  than  continued  constipation. 

EVERSION  (TURNING  OUT)  OF  THE  RECTUM. 

Poorly  kept  and  neglected  pigs  are  liable  to  protrusion 
of  the  rectum,  and  it  may  be  caused  also  by  straining  in 
parturition,  (pig  birth),  constipation,  and  diarrhoea. 

The  protruding  part  should  be  emptied,  cleaned  with 
warm  water,  moistened  with  Laudanum  if  at  hand,  gently 
returned  and  pushed  up  with  the  oiled  finger  a  short 
distance,  inside  the  anus.  In  treating  this  ailment,  as 
well  as  most  others,  attention  to  diet  and  comfort  is  all- 
important. 

RHEUMATISM. 

SYMPTOMS. — Dullness,  languor,  or  indisposition  ta  move, 
followed  by  extreme  lameness  in  one  or  more  limbs,  and 
heat,  swelling,  or  tenderness  of  a  joint,  tendon,  or  group 
of  muscles,  the  tenderness  perhaps  shifting  from  joint  to 
joint. 

TREATMENT. — A  tablespoonful  of  Cod-liver  Oil  should 
be  given  to  each  pig  once  or  twice  a  day  in  its  food.  A 
larger  daily  allowance  than  two  tablespoonfuls  to  pigs 
three  or  four  months  old,  while  the  oil  is  expensive,  does 
not  appear  to  hasten  the  cure  in  like  ratio.  The  cod-liver 
oil,  besides  curing  the  rheumatism,  both  acute  and  chronic, 
also  improves  the  condition  wonderfully.  Provide  well- 


VARIOUS    DISEASES.  305 

littered,  warm  housing,  from,  which  the  pigs  can  emerge 
to  the  yards  at  will.  Give  boiled  or  steamed  food,  and 
sour  milk. 

PIGS  LOSING  THEIR  TAILS. 

Pigs  sometimes  have  their  tails  frozen,  which  causes 
them  to  drop  off,  but  aside  from  this  cause,  it  frequently 
results  from  an  hereditary  tendency  to  a  disease  of  the 
skin  which  attacks  the  young  pig  at  that  particular  point, 
the  circulation  is  interfered  with,  and  the  member  per- 
ishes and  drops  off. 

If  the  disease  appears,  apply  Carbolic  Soap  to  the 
affected  part,  or  wash  clean,  and  apply  Glycerine,  Sweet 
Oil,  or  a  little  fresh  Lard. 

The  most  effectual  preventive  is  to  keep  pigs  clean,  dry, 
and  abundantly  nourished. 

CANKER   OR   SORE   MOUTH. 

Mr.  S.  M.  Shepard,  in  his  excellent  book  "The  Hog 
in  America,"  thinks  this  is  usually  the  result  of  un- 
healthful  milk  from  the  sow  or  from  poison  on  her  teats 
obtained  by  contact  with  poisonous  vines  or  wet  grass. 
He  says:  "The  first  symptoms  are  lumps  on  the  sow's 
udder,  and  sometimes  sores  ;  next  will  be  noticed  blisters 
on  the  lip,  tongue  and  mouth  of  the  pig ;  the  tongue 
and  lips  become  swollen  and  the  roof  and  sides  of  the 
mouth  inflamed  and  covered  with  deep  red  or  white 
blister  spots.  Treatment :  Catch  the  pig  and  swab  its 
mouth  out  thoroughly  with  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid 
and  water  sufficiently  strong  to  make  the  flesh  upon  the 
arm  tingle.  Apply  with  a  rag  or  small  piece  of  sponge 
tied  on  a  stick.  Strong  sage  tea  applied  in  the  same 
way  is  good,  and  in  addition  blow  powdered  sulphur 
through  a  straw  into  the  pig's  mouth.  Bathe  the  sow's 
teats  and  udder  with  a  weak  solution  of  carbolic  acid, 
and  keep  afflicted  litters  away  from  other  pigs." 


306 


SWINE 


INDEX. 


Allen,  A.  B.,  Essay on  Berkshires  47 

Am.  Berkshire  Association 46 

Artichokes,  Jerusalem  or  Bra- 
zilian   112-116 

Bacon.  Export  of 11 

Baldwin,  Hon.  Elmer,  on  Dis- 
eased Swine 240 

On  Pasturage 116 

Berkshires 42-54 

Allen,  A.  B.,  Essay  on 47 

Berkshire  Association 45 

Characteristics  and   Mark- 
ings   46 

Cross  with  Essex 84 

Cross  with  Poland-China..  62 

Earliest  Importations 58 

Herd  Book 45 

Introduction    into   Warren 

Co.,Ohio 24 

Record  of 224 

Relative  Merits,  compared 
with  Suffolk  and  Essex. 80-85 

Their  Good  Qualities 44 

"Windsor  Castle" 51 

Bingham,  R.   L.,   on    Cooking 

Food 136 

Boar.  Castration  of  Old 94 

How  to  Choose 89 

Importance  of  Pure  Breed . .  91 

In-and-in  Breeding 93 

Joint  Ownership  of 94 

Keeping 92 

Proper  Age  of  for  Service  .  92 
Bowles,  John  8.,  on  Hog  Chol- 
era  ..280 

Boynton,  John,  on  Sow  Eating 

her  Pigs 215 

Brazilian  Artichokes 112 

Breeding,  Prize  Animals  for. .  .220 
Breeds— Merely  mentioned  and 
synonyms;  the  other  breeds  in 
the  regular  alphabetical  order: 

Bedford 23 

Big  China 23 

ButlerCounty 21 


Breeds-Byfield 23 

Chester  County  Whites 

Chinese •»* 

Dick's  Creek 21 

Duroc* 80 

Great  Western .1 

Gregory's  Creek •,'! 

Irish  Grazier M 

Jefferson  County  (of  N.  Y 

Jersey  Reda 79 

Lancashires "• 

Magie 

Miami  Valley..  .  21 

Moore 21 

Poland 21-31 

Poland  and  China 21 

Russia 23 

Shaker 21 

Siamese 49 

Suffolk,  Berkshire,  and  Es- 
sex, Compared 80-85 

Union  Village 21 

Warren  County 21-22 

Briggs, Milton, on  Poland-Chinas  32 
On  Hog  Cholera 286 

Brown,  Charles,  on  Poland  and 
Poland-Chinas 29 

Bryant,  E.  W.;  on  Cough 292 

Burlington    Ilawktye    on    Arti- 
chokes  115 

Butchering  Hogs 150 

Castrating  Boars 94,  106 

Ridgling  Hogs 107 

Young  Pigs 108 

Cattle  and  Swine,  Value  com- 
pared   14 

Cattle,  Swine  running  with 126 

Chase,  Dr.  A.  G.,  on  Apoplexy.  .301 

On  Essex 65 

On    Inflammation    of    the 

Brain 300 

On  Kidney  Worms 292 

On  Poland-Chinas 33 

Chemical  Composition  of  Arti- 
cles of  Food ...  ..160 


INDEX. 


Cheshire,  or  Jefferson  County  73-75 

Curtis,  Col.  F.  D.,  on. 74 

National  Convention's  Re- 
port on 73 

Sanders,  J.  H.,  on 74 

Chester  Whites 34-42 

Characteristics  of 42 

Impure  Stock  sold 39 

Weights  of 38 

Chicago,    Live-stock    Sales    in 

187?. 16 

Clay,   S.   H.,    Experiments   on 

Cooking  Food 131-134 

His  Food-cooker 138 

Clover,  Value  as  Food 111 

Comparative  Value  of  Articles 

of  Food 161 

Conover,  Thomas,  on  Poland- 
China as 

Cooking  Food  for  Swine. ..127-140 

Apparatus  for 137-140 

Bingham,  R.  L.,  on 136 

Clay,   S.   H.,   Experiments 

on....  131-134 

Cooked  Meal 187 

Cooked  Wheat 221 

Henry,  Prof.,  on 136 

H.  M.  &  W.  P.  Sisson's  Ex- 
periments on. 129 

Maine  Agricultural  College 

Experiments  on 136 

Stalker,    M.,    Experiments 

on 134-135 

Steamed  or  Boiled  Corn 170 

Stone,  U.  H.,  on ...131 

Wilkinson,  Prof.,  on 131 

Wood,  Thomas,  on 130 

Corn— See  Indian  Corn. 
Cottrell,  E.  W.,  Essay  on  the 
Relative   Merits- of  the  Suf- 
folks,    Berkshires,    and    Es- 
sex  . 80-85 

On  Essex 66 

Curing  Pork.   Is  it  Profitable  ?.  .161 
Curtis,  Col.  F.  D.,  on  Cheshire 

or  Jefferson  County 74 

Department  of  Agriculture,  In- 
efficiency of 241 

Detmers,  Dr.  H.  J.,  on  "Hog 

Cholera" 243 

Report  on,  to  the  Missouri 
State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture   - 247-272 

Diseasesof  Swine,  Introductory -239 
Angina,  Malignant  or  Gan- 
grenous   249 

Anthrax,   Apoplectic 251 

Carbuncle 250 

Mouth,  Gum,  or  Gloss-251 


307 


Diseases  of  Swine  (t 

Anthrax  Diseases,.' .  -  .241 

Causes  of.r: 244 

Detmers,  Dr.  H.  J.,  on .243 
Name  preferable  to  Hog 

Cholera 244 

Paaren,  Dr.  N.  H.,  on.. 273 

The  Contagion  of 246 

Apoplectic  Anthrax 251 

Apoplexy 801 

Bladder-worm .293 

Blind  Staggers ...299 

Bull  Nose 299 

Brain,  Inflammation  of 299 

Canker  or  Sore  Mouth 305 

Catarrh,  Nasal 299 

Constipation .304 

Cough 297 

Crowd  Poison ..287 

Cysticercus  celhdosce 293 

Diarrhoea 302 

Epilepsy .-299 

Epizootic  Influeuzaof  Swine 
amore  accurate  Namethan 

"Hcg  Cholera" 254 

Catarrhal  -  Rheumatic 

Form  of-... 255 

Causes  of 265 

Cerebro  -Rheumatic 

Form  of.. ...263 

Dr.  H.  J.  Detmers  on. -253 

Duration  of .-.269 

G  astric  -Rheumatic 

Form  of. 257 

Lymphatic  -  Rheumatic 

Form  of 263 

Prevention  of 269 

Treatment  of 270 

Erysipelas,  Gangrenous 24? 

Eu&trongylus  gigas 293 

E  version  of  Rectum £04 

Gangrenous  Erysipelas 247 

Heaves 298 

Hog  Cholera,  So-called. 241 -288 
"A.  M.  W.,"  Odin,  111., 

on...... —-.281 

Anthrax  Diseases  pro- 
posed  --244 

Bowles,  John,  on 280 

Briggs',  Milton,  Reme- 
dy for ! 286 

Dr.  H.  J.  Detmers  on.  .243 
Dr.  H.  J.  Detmers'  Re- 
port to  the  Missouri 

Board -253 

Dr.  N.  H.  Paaren  on.. -273 
"Infallible     Remedy," 
from     the    Louisville 
Courier  Journal 285 


308 


SWINK     HI  H'.AM'KY. 


Diseases  of  Swine  (continued). 
Epizootic  Influenza  of 
Swine  proposed  as  the 

Name 254 

Kimberly,  R.,  &  Sons, 

Treatment  for 285 

Long's,  J.  8.,  Experi- 
ence with 288 

Moore's,  A.  C.,  Treat- 
ment of 888 

Name  Incorrect 243 

Neglect  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 242 
Prof.  James  Law  on . .  .278 
Prof.  J.  B.  Turner's  Kec- 

ipefor 282 

"Smart-weed"  recom- 
mended as  a  Preven- 
tive   883 

Stetson,  Ezra,  on 287 

The  Extent  of  its  Rav- 
ages  241 

The  Missouri  State 
Board  of  Agriculture 

investigates 253 

Inflammation  of  Brain 299 

Itch  in  Swine..  ...295 

Kidney  Worms 293 

Lice  on  Swine 295 

"Lights,  Rising  of". 

Lungs,  I  n  Mam  Hint  ion  of £C7 

Malignant  Pustule 251 

Mange  of  Swine 295 

Measles ...         293-294 

Na>al  Catarrh  ...299 

Paralysis  of  Loins 301 

Paraplegia 

Pneumonia 267 

Quinsv..  ...218 

"  Rising  of  the  Lights  "...  .297 
Rectum,  Turning  out  of..  .304 

Kheumat  ism '•  05 

St.  Anthony's  Fire  .  .247 

tSarcoptcs  sni* 295 

Scab  in  Swine 295 

Scours 302 

Staggers 299 

Strangles 298 

Tmtia  sotium 293 

Tape-worm 293 

Thumps  in  Swine . 298 

Trichina  .spiral is 290-292 

Trichiriosis 291 

White  Bristle...  ...250 

Wild-fire 247 

Worm,  Bladder...  ..293 
Worm,  Tape..  ..293 
Worms  ..  ...289 
Worms,  Kidney 292 


Dutrich,  John  0.,  on  ITog  Clml- 

era 

Ear  Mutilation ;  Ear-Mark-        .1 1 

Essex 62-68 

Characteristics  and   Murk- 
ings  CO 

Chase,  Dr.,  of  Kansas,  on..  65 

Cottrell,  E.  W.,  on 66 

Crossed  with  Suffolk 83 

Cross  with  link-hire 84 

Relative  Merits,  compared 
with  Berkshire  and  Suf- 

folks s 

Sidney  on 64 

Smith,  William,  on 64 

Experiments,  Prof.  Henry's  193-206 

Prof.  Sanborn's 206 

Fattening..  11*  !,-? 

By  I  logging  off  Corn  Ficl« : 

Cooked  Food  for 1. 

Cooked  Wheat  for 165 

Effects  of  Cold  in 184 

Exclusive  Use  of  Corn 121 

(ireen  Corn  for 120 

New  and  Old  Corn  for 120 

New  England  Method..  .  125 

On  Raw  Corn 165-167 

Pumpkins  for 120 

Salt  and  Condiments...    .124 

The  Right  Age  for 177 

With  Fattening  Cattle 198 

Feeding  Floor 148 

Feeding  for  Fat  and  IAMO    193--.X)6 

Feeding  in  Summer 108-118 

Feed  Cooker 137-140 

Food,  Artichoke  8  as 112-116 

Chemical  Composition  of    160 

Comparative  Value  of Ill 

Cooking  .127-140 

Feeding  Valueof  other  Food 
as  Compared  with  Corn  . .  161 

Grass  and  Clover  for 198 

Pasture  and  Summer  Food 

(See  Indian  Corn). .  .108-118 
Raw  Corn  Fed  in  the  Ear.  165 
Steamed  or  Boiled  Corn ...  186 

Value  of  Peas 1 12 

Gestation,  Period  of 9H-236 

(trades  with  Common  Stock 85 

Grass  and  Clover,  Value  of.  180-181 
Gray,  Hon.  Alfred,  on  Chetter 

Whites 41 

Growth,    Reports    of    Remark- 
able   219 

Hams.  Curing  and  Smoking  154-155 
Harris,  Joseph,  on  Diarrhoea.--303 
Henry,  Prof.,  on  Cooking  Food .136 

Herd-Book  of  Berkshires. 45 

Berkshire,  British 224 


INDEX. 


309 


Hog-Feeding  and  Pork  Making. 

Jos.  Sullivant  on 156-183 

"Hogging  off"  Corn  Fields... 221 

Hog  Houses  and  Pens 140-149 

Hog  Products,  American,  Dis- 
tribution of 12 

Exported,  Value 11 

Export  in  ten  Years 13 

Hog  Rings,  Tongs  and  Turners .213 
Hoga,  Cost  per  One  Hundred 

Pounds  gross 14 

Total  Number  Packed.-...  14 

Weight  of  Packed 13 

Holloway,  Cephas,  on  Poland- 
Chinas 23 

Houses  for  Swine ..140-149 

Charles  Snoads 144-146 

For  Breeding 141 

Kansas 141-144 

Large  Objectionable 141 

How  Much  Pork  in  a  Bushel  of 

Corn? 161-190 

Indian  Corn  and  Pork,  Relative 

Prices .175-176,  222 

Cost  of  Raising 1 73-175 

Experiments    in    Cooking 

127-140 

Fed  in  the  Ear... 165-167 

Feeding  New  and  Old It30 

How  Much  Pork  in  a  Bushel 

of? 161 

How  Much  Pork  to  an  Acre 

of?  -... .175-176 

Not  to  be  Fed  Exclusively.  121 
Other  Articles  of  Food  Com- 
pared with 161 

Steamed  or  Boiled ...170 

Jersey  Reds ..79-80 

Characteristics  of 79 

Jerusalem  Artichokes 112-116 

Kimberly,  R.,  &  Son,  on  Hog 

Cholera 285 

Lard... --- -- 156 

Export  Of 11 

Percentage  of. 13 

Lard  Oil  Exported  in  Eighteen 

Years 12 

Lawes,  J.   B.,  Experiments  in 

Feeding.... 169 

Law,  Prof.  James,  on  Hog  Chol- 
era   - 278 

On  Inflammation  of  Brain .  .300 

On  Measles 293 

Leland.  Charles  E.,  on  Victorias  76 
Long,  J.  S.,  on  Hog  Cholera ...288 
Maine  Ag'l  College,  Experiment 

with  Cooked  Food. ..    136 

Maize— (See  Indian  Cora). 
Magic.  D.  M.,  on  Poland-China-  30 


Marking  Hogs.. .214 

Meal,  Feeding  Cooked 171 

Raw 168 

Medicines,   Mode  of  Adminis- 
tering  239 

Messer,  A.,  Report  of  Unusual 

Growth 219 

Miles,  Prof.  M.,  Experiments  in 

Feeding.... .184 

Millikin,  Hon.  John  M.,  on  the 
"Hogging  off"  of  Corn  Fields  221 
On  the  Value  of  the  Hog 

Product  of  the  U.  S 14 

Report  on  the  Poland-Chinas  31 
Millikin,  Stephen,  on  Poland  and 

Poland-China 31 

Missouri  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture Investigation  on  Hog 

Cholera ..253 

Moore,  A.  C.,  on  Feeding  Them.  101 

On  Hog  Cholera 283 

On  Lice.... 261 

On  Saving  Young  Pigs 99 

On  the  Prevention  of  Root- 
ing   213 

On  Thumps  or  Heaves 298 

Mulford,  Dr.,  on  Diarrhoea 302 

Neapolitans 77-7& 

Characteristics   and  Mark- 
ings of 7£ 

Phillips,  Dr.,  on 78 

Weld,  Col.  M.  C.,  on 77 

New  England  Method  of  Fat- 
tening  ...125 

Paaren,  Dr.  N.  H.,  on  Hog  Chol- 
era   273-277 

On  Kidney-Worms 300 

On  Lice. ..304 

On  Mange.... -303 

Pasture  for  Swine 108-118 

Hon.  E.  Baldwin  on 116 

Peas,  Value  as  Food. 112 

Pens  and  Houses -140-149 

Pens,  Portable 147 

Pickle  for  Pork ...154 

Pig  and  Pork,  Cost  of 2*1 

Piggeries 141-144 

Pig-pens 147 

Pigs,  A.  C.  Moore  on  Raising. ..101 

Castrating  Young. 102 

Feeding  Young 101 

Preventing      from      being 

Crushed 99 

Spaying  Young  Sows 103 

Summer  Feeding  of 109 

The  Sow  and  her. - 95 

To  Prevent  Sow  from  Eat- 
ing  100,214 

Weaning 103-105 


310 


SWINE    HUSBANDRY. 


Points,  Diagram  of 230 

Scale  of..  ...227 

Poland-China 21-33 

Characteristics  of 27 

Convention  of  Swine  Breed- 
ers, Report  on 26 

Holloway,  Cephas,  Account 

of 23 

Weights  of 33 

Pork  Products,  Exportation  of, 

in  1872 16 

Price  of,  as  Related  to  that 

of  Indian  Corn 222 

Pork.  Cost  of  Raising 173 

Curing  in  Brine 154 

Danger  of   Eating   Imper- 
fectly Cooked 292 

Dry-salting 153 

Export  of. 11 

How  Much  in  a  Bushel  of 

Corn? 177-190 

How  Much  from  an  Acre  of 

Corn? 175-176 

Is  it  Profitable  to  Cure  ?. . . .217 

Pickle  for 154 

Relation    of   Prices   of,  to 

those  of  Corn 222 

Portable  Pig-pena 147 

Prices  of  Pork  and  Corn,  their 

Relation 222 

Prize  Animals  for  Breeding 220 

Pumpkins  for  Feeding liO 

Quarrelsome  and  Fighting;  Hogs216 
Record,  American  Berkshire.. .224 

Chester  White 226 

Duroc-Jersey 226 

Poland-China 224 

American 225 

Central 225 

Northwestern 225 

Standard 236 

Records  and  Recording 223 

Relative     Merits    of    Suffolks, 

Berkshire,  and  Essex 80-85 

Report   of  the    Department  of 
Agriculture  on  Sows  Eating 

Piirs 215 

Reports  of  Remarkable  Growth. 219 

Ridgling  Hogs,  To  Castrate 107 

Rinpintr  Hogs 213 

Rooting,  its  Prevention 213 

Salt  for  Swine 124 

Sanders,  J.  H.,  on  Cheshires...  74 

Scalding,  Apparatus  for 151 

Scale    of    Points   for   Judging 

Swine 227 

Shoulders,  Curing  and  Smoking 

.  154-155 

Sidney  on  Essex 64 


Sisson,  H.  M.  &  W.  P.,  on  Cook- 
ing Food  .....  ..........        P.".* 

Slaughtering,  Curing,  and  Pre- 
serving Pork  ............  149-156 

Small  Yorkshires  ..............  61 

Smith,  William,  on  Essex  ......  64 

on  Suffolks  ..............     :>'.' 

Smoking  Meats  ................  155 

Snoad,  Charles,  House  for  Swine 

................  144-14JJ 

Sow,  at  Weaning  ..............  105 

Condition  of,  for  Breeding  216 
Feed  for,  at  Farrow  ing  Time  100 
Feeding  while  with  Pig....  98 

How  to  Choose  ............  95 

Pen  for,  and  Nest  ..........  99 

Period  of  Gestation  in  .....  98 

Spaying  ...................  107 

Timeto  Breed  .............  96 

To  Prevent  from  Eatinp  her 
Fin  ......  .  ......  »-100,214 

When  in  Heat  .............  97 

Spaying  Sow-pigs  .............  103 

Sows  .....................  107 

Stalker,  MM  on  CookedFood  1  :W-  1  :« 
Stetson,  Ezra,  on  Hog  Cholera.  .287 
Sties  ......................  141-147 

Mock  Journal,  on  Feeding  Floor 
and  Pen  .....................  146 

Stock  Yards  Receipts  ..........  234 

Stow,  N.  H.,  on  Cooked  Food.  .131 
Suffolks  .....................  54-61 

Cross  with  Essex  ..........  83 

Characteristics  and   Mark- 
ings of  ..................  61 

Relative  Merits  Compared 
with   Berkshire  and   Es- 


sex 


Report  of  Convention  en..  60 
Smith,  William,  on  ......  ..  59 

Wentworth,  Hon.  J.,  on...  56 
Sullivant,  Joseph,  Essay  on  Hog 

Feeding  and  Pork  Making  156-183 
Summer  Food  .............  108-118 

Sweet  Corn  for  Swine  .........  120 

Swine.  Classifying  and  Judging 
at  Fairs  .....................  227 

Distribution  of  Worli'sSup- 
ply  ....................  10 

Export  of  Live  ............  11 

Number  of,  Gradual  Growth 
in  U.  8  ..................  10 

Packed  in  Twelve  Months.  .  10 
Quarrelsome  ..............  216 

Scale  of  Points  for  Judging.  227 
Their  Value  as  Compared 
with  Cattle  ...........  ..  15 

The  Number  of,  in  the  U.  8.    9 
White,  Disappearance  of  .  .  .207 


INDEX. 


311 


Turner,  Prof.  J.   B.,  on    Hog 

Cholera. 283-283 

Victorias 76 

Characteristics  and   Mark- 
ings of 76 

Leland,  Charles  E.,  on 76 

Weaning  Pigs 103-105 

Weights,  Important  Contrast s -.201 
Weld,  Col.  M.  C.,  on  Neapoli- 
tans  77 

Wentworth,  Hon.  John,  on  Suf- 
folk*...  ..  56 


Wheat,  Feeding  Cooked .9?! 

Wilkinson,   Prof.,  on   Cooking 

Food 131 

Williams,  A.  C.,  on  Artichokes  12 
Wood,    Thomas,    on    Chester 

Whites 34 

on  Cooked  Food 130 

on  the  Profit  of  Curing  Pork  H7 

Yorkshires .... 69-73 

Report  of  National  Conven- 
tion on...  ..  69 
Small. .                               .    61 


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